historical archaeology of the 19th - century caravan trade in north

330 Pages·2012·13.76 MB·English

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE 19TH - CENTURY
CARAVAN TRADE IN NORTH-EASTERN TANZANIA:
A ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

THOMAS JOHN BIGINAGWA

PhD

UNIVERSITY OF YORK
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY
JANUARY 2012

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ABSTRACT
Th is zooarchaeological study examined animal economies practiced by local communities
against the context of the expansion of the caravan trade in eastern Africa during the
nineteenth century. Specific objectives were to establish whether: a) animal economies in
areas crossed by caravan trade routes were transformed as a result of expanding trade and the
demand for supplies; b) new herd management strategies were adopted by local communities
to ensure production of surpluses for exchange; and c) the expansion of this trade caused
subsistence stress for local communities. The study area is the Lower Pangani River Basin,
north-eastern Tanzania.
The three studied riparian island settlements of Ngombezi, Old Korogwe and Kwa Sigi are
mentioned in the nineteenth-century European accounts as caravan halts in the Lower
Pangani. These were identified through archaeological survey and oral interviews - using the
nineteenth-century accounts as a guide to their likely locations. Excavation exposed evidence
for human settlements dating to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth centuries AD, and
materials recovered include over 30,000 pieces of animal bone, 39,000 potsherds, 4,020 local
and imported beads, metal objects, worked bones, remains of flintlock muskets and coins.
The analysis of the faunal remains indicates that domestic livestock, a wide range of wild
animals, and locally caught fish, were all being consumed at these settlements. The proportion
of wild fauna in the assemblage suggests their significant contribution to the diet. At
Ngombezi where the longest dated sequence was revealed, such a consumption pattern of
mixing domestic and wild resources is not significantly different from that of the pre-
nineteenth-century levels, suggesting that the integration of these settlements into the caravan
trade network had limited effects on food procurement strategies and consumption patterns.
There is a general lack of evidence that young animals were slaughtered, which would be
indicative of consumption pressure on domestic stock, as the majority of domestic stock was
slaughtered after reaching maturity age - over 3 years for cattle and over 2 years for sheep and
goat. These major findings contradict arguments made by historians that the caravan trade had
a transformative effect on communities lying along the main trade routes in the region, though
additional research at other sites is needed to strengthen this argument.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 21

1.1 Research Background 21

1.2 Statement of the Problem 24

1.3 Research Objectives 25

1.4 Research Approach 25

1.5 Theoretical Framework of the Study 26

1.5.1 Historical Ecology: concepts and relevance 26

1.5.2 Zooarchaeological Indicators of Subsistence Strategies 30

1.6 Expectations of the Study and Test Implications 32

1.7 Selection of the Study Area 34

1.8 Dissertation Organisation 35

CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL AND SUBSTANTIVE 38
FRAMEWORKS

2.1 Introduction 38

2.2 Historical Archaeology: definitions and contrasting approaches 39

2.2.1 Conceptual Issues 39

2.2.2 Research Trends in Historical Archaeology 42

2.3 East African Trade Contacts with the Outside World 51

2.4 Nineteenth-century East African Slave and Ivory Trade 57

2.4.1 Consequences of the 19th c. Caravan Trade 66

2.5 Zooarchaeology and Historical Ecology 75

2.6 Chapter Summary 80

CHAPTER 3: PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA 82

3.1 Introduction 82

3.2 The Pangani River Basin: Physical Characteristics 82

3.3 Present Demography and Ethnic Groups 88

3.4 Nineteenth-century Accounts about the Lower Pangani 91

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3.4.1 Definition of Zigualand 91

3.4.2 Traditional Zigua Settlement and House Forms 92

3.4.3 Nineteenth-century Subsistence Strategies 94

3.5 Documentary Records Relating to the Study Sites 102

3.6 The Nineteenth-century Town of Pangani 107

3.7 Previous Archaeological Research in the Lower Pangani 109

3.8 Chapter Summary 118

CHAPTER 4: FIELDWORK RESULTS 121

4.1 Introduction 121

4.2 Fieldwork Schedule and Data Recovery Methods 121

4.3 Excavation Results 124

4.3.1 Ngombezi Test Pit 124

4.3.2 Ngombezi Main Trench 129

4.3.3 Old Korogwe 145

4.3.4 Kwa Sigi 149

4.4 Oral Historical Evidence 156

4.4.1 Ethnic Communities Inhabited the Studied Islands 156

4.4.2 Subsistence Strategies of the Studied Communities 158

4.5 Chapter Summary 161

CHAPTER 5: THE ARTEFACTUAL EVIDENCE 163

5.1 Introduction 163

5.2 The Ceramic Assemblage 163

5.2.1 Analysis Results of Local Pottery 166

5.2.2 Imported Pottery 182

5.3 The Bead Assemblage 184

5.3.1 Shell Beads 185

5.3.2 Glass Beads 185

5.4 Miscellaneous Artefacts 193

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5.5 General Discussion 195

5.5.1 Pottery 195

5.5.2 Beads 204

5.5.3 Miscellaneous Artefacts 213

5.6 Chapter Summary 214

CHAPTER 6: FAUNAL ANALYSIS 216

6.1 Introduction 216

6.2 Analysis Procedures and Methods 216

6.2.1 Sorting and Identification 219

6.2.2 Methods of Estimating Taxonomic Abundance 221

6.2.3 Methods of Age Estimation for Domestic Stock 221

6.2.4 Methods of Analysing Fish Fauna 223

6.2.5 Methods of Recording Taphonomic Aspects 224

6.3 Analysis Results for Ngombezi Main Trench 225

6.3.1 General Composition 225

6.3.2 Taxonomic Composition 226

6.3.3 Taphonomic Aspects of the Assemblage 244

6.4 Analysis Results for Ngombezi Test Pit 245

6.4.1 Taxonomic Composition 249

6.4.2 Bone Surface Modification 251

6.5 Analysis Results for Old Korogwe 252

6.5.1 Taxonomic Composition 252

6.5.2 Bone Surface Modifications 256

6.6 Analysis Results for the Kwa Sigi Assemblage 258

6.6.1 Taxonomic Representation 258

6.6.2 Bone Surface Modifications 259

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6.7 Chapter Summary 261

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 265

7.1 Introduction 265

7.2 Historical Archaeology of the Lower Pangani: A Revisit 265

7.3 Evidence for Settlements and Involvement in Caravan Trade 267

7.4 Animal Economy Practiced at the Caravan Halt Settlements 274

7.4.1 Species Consumed: composition and comparison 274

7.4.2 Domestic Stock 277

7.4.2.1 Herd Management and Culling Practices 278

7.4.3 Wild Animals Consumed and Hunting Techniques 283

7.4.3.1 Dietary Contribution of Small Mammals 284

7.4.3.2 Medium and Large Sized Wild Animals 288

7.4.4 Patterns of Consumption and Butchery Practices 291

7.5 Summary and Conclusions 294

7.6 Limitations of the Study and Future Research Direction 298

BIBLIOGRAPHY 300

APPENDICES 318

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Khoikhoi family on the move, southern Cape, late 47
17th c. or early 18th c.

Figure 2.2 Map of eastern Africa showing the routes of earlier slave 54
trade in Eastern Africa

Figure 2.3 An early Portuguese depiction of the island of Kilwa in 55
the 15th c.

Figure 2.4 Nyamwezi porters resting in coconut palm grove, near 59
Bagamoyo

Figure 2.5 Nyamwezi „pagazi’ or ivory porter 60

Figure 2.6 A forest devastated by herds of elephants in Uganda 62

Figure 2.7 19th c. Venetian trade beads in white, single colours and 65
variegated glass

Figure 2.8 Location of the main 19th c. caravan route in East Africa 67

Figure 2.9 Market scene in Ujiji, c. 1878 69

Figure 2.10 British Naval Officers and men crossing the bar to rescue 72
abandoned slaves from a sinking boat

Figure 3.1 Location of Pangani River Basin in its wider geographical 84
contexts

Figure 3.2 A view of Usambara Mountains from Ngombezi 85

Figure 3.3 Pangani River near Old Korogwe 86

Figure 3.4 Contemporary „traditional‟ foot bridge at Kwa Mgumi 93

Figure 3.5 A map by Burton and Speke showing series of burnt 101
villages between Pangani town and Chogwe

Figure 3.6 A 19th c. sketch map by Burton and Speke showing island 103
settlements on the Pangani River

Figure 3.7 Keith Johnston‟s (1978) map showing island settlements 103
on the Pangani River

Figure 3.8 The Island of Old Korogwe from bank 105

Figure 3.9 The Island of Old Korogwe by Meyer, H 105
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Figure 3.10 A 19th c. building at Bweni, popularly known as 109
Gosi la Tembo‟s dwelling

Figure 3.11 Tongwe Fort 116

Figure 3.12 Indian Street in Pangani town 117

Figure 3.13 Excavation Unit at Pangani showing early structure 118
predating the standing building at Pangani Town

Figure 4.1 Faunal remains from Ngombezi after washing 123

Figure 4.2 A plan of Ngombezi island showing locations of the 125
main trench and a test pit

Figure 4.3 Excavation in progress of a 1x1m test pit at 127
Ngombezi main site

Figure 4.4 The stratigraphy of Ngombezi test pit, 128
East facing wall

Figure 4.5 Ngombezi main trench during excavation-showing 132
subdivision into squares

Figure 4.6 The stratigraphy of Ngombezi main trench, 133
South facing wall

Figure 4.7 The matrix for Ngombezi main trench 135

Figure 4.8 Burial encountered in Layer 4, Square 1, 137
Ngombezi main trench

Figure 4.9 Dense layer of house daub, Layer 6 (a), and daub 138
showing impressions of wattle/wooden frame (b)

Figure 4.10 Postholes in Layer 9, Ngombezi main trench 139

Figure 4.11 Dense layer of house daub, Layer 12 140

Figure 4.12 Postholes and a hearth, Layer 13 – 141
Ngombezi main trench

Figure 4.13 Radiocarbon calibrated graph for sample11I (a); and for 144
sample 1A (b)

Figure 4.14 Excavation work at Old Korogwe 147

Figure 4.15 The stratigraphy of Old Korogwe trench, 148
West facing wall
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Figure 4.16 The matrix for Old Korogwe trench 148

Figure 4.17 A plan of the Kwa Sigi island showing distribution of test 151
pits and other features

Figure 4.18 Excavation work in progress at Kwa Sigi 154

Figure 4.19 Some finds encountered at Kwa Sigi 155

Figure 4.20 The author interviewing Mr. Ali Mgunya 157

Figure 4.21 A local fisherman displaying to the author one of his 160
traditional fishing gear known as Masega in KiZigua.

Figure 5.1 Categories of ceramic types 173

Figure 5.2 Categories of decoration motifs 180

Figure 5.3 Imported ceramic 183

Figure 5.4 A variety of non-glass beads from the study sites 185

Figure 5.5 Distribution of glass and non-glass beads, 187
Ngombezi main trench

Figure 5.6 A variety of glass beads recovered by this project 189

Figure 5.7 Distribution of glass and non-glass beads, 191
Ngombezi test pit

Figure 5.8 Distribution of glass and non-glass beads, 191
Old Korogwe

Figure 5.9 Distribution of glass and non-glass beads, 193
Kwa Sigi (test pit 11).

Figure 5.10 Miscellaneous artefacts recovered from the study sites 194

Figure 5.11 Assorted metal objects recovered from the study sites 196

Figure 5.12 A select of pottery types from South Pare and Usambaras 198
reported by Soper (1967)

Figure 5.13 Examples of pottery recorded by J. Walz around 200
Korogwe area

Figure 5.14 Location of Walz‟ survey area and find spots categorised 201
by site type

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Figure 5.15 Zigua and Bondei pottery forms 205

Figure 5.16 Comparison of colours represented in pre- 209
European and post-European contact horizons at
Kaole

Figure 6.1 Cleaning and sorting bones at UDSM (a); faunal analysis 218
(species identification) at SUA (b)

Figure 6.2 Selected examples of: maximally identifiable faunal 220
specimens (a); specimens recorded under artiodactyls size
classes (b); and specimens recorded under mammal size
classes (c).

Figure 6.3 Examples of materials used for aging caprines (a), 222
and cattle (b).

Figure 6.4 Fish identification in progress by a local fisherman 225

Figure 6.5 Animal size classes in the Ngombezi faunal assemblage 227

Figure 6.6 Composition of the maximally identified faunal, 228
Ngombezi main trench

Figure 6.7 Results of caprines‟ age profile by using dental evidence 230

Figure 6.8 Results of caprine‟s age profile by using long bone 231
elements

Figure 6.9 Results of cattle age profile by using bong bone elements 233

Figure 6.10 Selected faunal specimens representing 235
domestic species

Figure 6.11 Composition and distribution of wild terrestrial 236
fauna, Ngombezi main trench

Figure 6.12 Rodent and elephant shrew materials 238

Figure 6.13 Selected faunal specimens representing 240
wild ungulates

Figure 6.14 Selected faunal specimens representing 241
felines and non-human primates

Figure 6.15 Identified fish taxa, Ngombezi main trench 243

Figure 6.16 Selected faunal specimens showing evidence 246
of cut-marks
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