Zoo and wild animal medicine: current therapy

539 Pages·2008·50.46 MB·English

by  Murray E. Fowler

11830 Westline Industrial Drive
St. Louis, Missouri 63146
ZOO AND WILD ANIMALMEDICINE CURRENT THERAPY,
Volume Six ISBN: 978-1-4160-4047-7
Copyright © 2008 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
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Notice
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our knowledge, changes in practice, treatment, and drug therapy may become
necessary or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the most current information provided
(i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to
verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and
contraindications. It is the responsibility of the practitioner, relying on his or her own experience
and knowledge of the patient, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment
for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To the fullest extent of
the law, neither the Publisher nor the Authors assume any liability for any injury and/or damage
to persons or property arising out or related to any use of the material contained in this book.
The Publisher
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Publisher: Penny Rudolph
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Contributors
Mary E. Allen, PhD Marcus Clauss, MSc, DrMedVet
Center for Veterinary Medicine Senior Research Associate
Food and Drug Administration Division of Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets, and Wildlife
Rockville, Maryland Vetsuisse Faculty
University of Zurich
David E. Anderson, DVM, MS, DACVS Zurich, Switzerland
Professor and Head of Agricultural Practices
Clinical Sciences Robert A. Cook, VMD, MPA
College of Veterinary Medicine Chief Veterinarian and Vice President
Kansas State University Wildlife Health Sciences
Manhattan, Kansas Wildlife Conservation Society
Bronx, New York
Adjunct Assistant Professor
Kay A. Backues, DVM, DACZM
School of International and Public Affairs
Adjunct Professor
Columbia University
Zoo-Exotic Animal Medicine
Manhattan, New York
Oklahoma State University
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Graham Crawshaw, BVetMed, MS, MRCVS,
Adjunct Professor
DACZM
Lab and Exotic Pet Medicine
Senior Veterinarian
Tulsa Community College
Toronto Zoo
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Toronto
Staff Veterinarian
Ontario, Canada
Veterinary Health Department
Tulsa Zoo
Sharon L. Deem, DVM, PhD, ACZM
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Research Veterinarian
Department of Animal Health
Thomas A. Bailey, BSc, BVSc, MRCVS, MSc
Smithsonian National Zoological Park
(wild animal health), CertZooMed, PhD,
Washington, DC
DECAMS
Falcon and Wildlife Veterinarian
Mary C. Denver, DVM
Dubai Falcon Hospital
Director, Medical Department
Dubai
Maryland Zoo in Baltimore
United Arab Emirates
Baltimore, MD
Wayne Boardman, BVetMed, MRCVS, MACVSc Ellen S. Dierenfeld, BS, MS, PhD, Cert Nutr Spec
Head of Veterinary Conservation Programs Adjunct Professor
Zoological Society of South Australia Department of Animal Science
Adelaide Zoo Cornell University
Adelaide, South Australia Ithaca, New York
Australia Adjunct Professor
Department of Animal Science
Andrew C. Breed, BSc, BVMS, MSc, MRCVS University of Missouri
Project Officer Columbia, Missouri
School of Veterinary Science Nutritionist
Australian Biosecurity Cooperative Research Centre Department of Animal Health and Nutrition
University of Queensland Saint Louis Zoo
Brisbane, Australia Saint Louis, Missouri
v
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vi Contributors
Peter Dollinger, DVM, PhD William B. Karesh, DVM
Executive Director Director
World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) Field Veterinary Program
Lieberfeld-Berne, Switzerland Wildlife Conservation Society
Bronx, New York
Andrea L. Fidgett, BSc, MSc, PhD
Nutritionist Reimi E. Kinoshita, BVMS, MRCVS, MPhil
North of England Zoological Society Research Veterinarian and Specialist Advisor
Chester Zoo Zoological Operations and Education
Chester, United Kingdom Ocean Park Corporation
Hong Kong
Edmund Flach, MA, VetMB, MSc, DZooMed,
MRCVS James K. Kirkwood, BVSc, PhD, FlBiol, MRCVS
Veterinary Officer Chief Executive and Scientific Director
Veterinary Department Universities Federation for Animal Welfare
Zoological Society of London Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
Dunstable, Bedfordshire Gregory A. Lewbart, MS, VMD, Dipl ACZM
United Kingdom Professor of Aquatic Medicine
Department of Clinical Sciences
Laurie J. Gage, DVM North Carolina State University
Lecturer College of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology Raleigh, North Carolina
University of California at Davis
School of Veterinary Medicine Gregory A. Lewbart, MS, VMC, DACZM
Davis, California Department of Clinical Sciences
North Carolina State University
Jean-Michel Hatt, ProfDrMedVet, DECAMS College of Veterinary Medicine
Division of Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets, and Wildlife Raleigh
University of Zurich North Carolina
Zurich, Switzerland
Linda J. Lowenstine, DVM, PhD, DACVP
Sabine Hilsberg-Merz, Dr Professor of Veterinary Pathology
Zoo Animal Specialist (FTA) Department of Microbiology and Immunology
Trendelburg, Germany School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California at Davis
JoGayle Howard, DVM, PhD Davis, California
Adjunct Professor
Department of Animal and Avian Sciences Susan K. Mikota, DVM
University of Maryland Hohenwald, Tennessee
College Park, Maryland
Theriogenologist Melissa A. Miller
Department of Reproductive Services Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center
Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park Department of Fish and Game
Washington, DC University of California at Davis
Davis, California
Wan Htun, BVS (Ygn)
Assistant Manager (Vet) Michael W. Miller, DVM, PhD
Deputy General Manager Office Senior Wildlife Veterinarian
East Bago Division Colorado Division of Wildlife
Myanmar Timber Enterprise Wildlife Research Center
Taungoo, Myanmar Fort Collins, Colorado
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Contributors vii
Michele A. Miller, DVM, PhD Edward C. Ramsay, DVM, DACZM
Veterinary Operations Manager Professor of Avian and Zoological Medicine
Department of Veterinary Services Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
Disney’s Animal Programs The University of Tennessee
Lake Buena Vista, Florida Knoxville, Tennessee
Sharon P. Redrobe, DVM
Hayley Weston Murphy, DVM
Head of Veterinary Services
Director of Veterinary Services
Bristol Zoo Gardens
Zoo New England
Bristol, United Kingdom
Boston, Massachusetts
Timothy A. Reichard, MS, DVM
Luis R. Padilla, DVM
Bird and Exotic Pet Wellness Center
Oklahoma City Zoo
Toledo, Ohio
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Thomas H. Reidarson, DVM, DACZM
Alberto Parás, MVZ Director of Veterinary Services
Professor, Wild Animal Medicine Sea World of California
Univercidad Nacional Autonoma de México San Diego, California
México City, México
Director, Animal Health Service Laura K. Richman, DVM, PhD, DACVP
Animal Health Service Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park
African Safari Department of Pathology
Puebla, México Washington, DC
Patricia G. Parker, PhD Nadia Robert, DVM, DACVD
Des Lee Professor of Zoological Studies Assistant Professor
Department of Biology Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health
University of Missouri—St. Louis Institute of Animal Pathology
St. Louis, Missouri Vet Suisse Faculty Berne
Senior Scientist Berne, Switzerland
Wildcare Institute
Saint Louis Zoo Anthony W. Sainsbury, BVetMed, CertZooMed,
St. Louis, Missouri MRCVS
Lecturer in Wild Animal Health
Institute of Zoology
Allan P. Pessier, DVM
Zoological Society of London
Zoological Society of San Diego
London, United Kingdom
San Diego, California
Juergen Schumacher, DrMedVet, DACZM
Joost D. Philippa, DVM
Associate Professor, Avian and Zoological Medicine
Institute of Virology
University of Tennessee
Erasmus Medical Center
College of Veterinary Medicine
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
Knoxville, Tennessee
Romain Pizzi, BVSc, MSc, DZooMed, FRES,
MACVSc (Surg), MRCVS Francis T. Scullion, MVB, PhD, MRCVS
Zoo and Wildlife Pathologist Founder, Member, and Past President of the World
Veterinary Department Association of Wildlife Veterinarians
Zoological Society Ballygawley, County Tyrone
London, United Kingdom Northern Ireland
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viii Contributors
Raghunath Shivappa, PhD William M. Switzer, MPH
Postdoctoral Research Associate Laboratory Branch
College of Veterinary Medicine Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention
North Carolina State University Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Raleigh, North Carolina Atlanta, Georgia
James G. Sikarskie, DVM, MS, DACZM Maryanne E. Tocidlowski, DVM, DACZM
Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarian Associate Veterinarian
Small Animal Clinical Sciences Houston Zoo, Inc.
College of Veterinary Medicine Houston, Texas
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan Dominic Travis, DVM, MS
Director, Davee Center for Epidemiology and
Jonathan M. Sleeman, MA, VetMB, DACZM, Endocrinology
MRCVS Department of Conservation and Science
Adjunct Professor Lincoln Park Zoo
Large Animal Clinical Sciences Chicago, Illinois
Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary
Medicine Raymund F. Wack, DVM, MS, DACZM
Virginia Technical University Senior Veterinarian
Blacksburg, Virginia Wildlife Health Center
Adjunct Assistant Professor University of California at Davis
Department of Small Clinical Sciences Davis, California
College of Veterinary Medicine Staff Veterinarian
University of Tennessee Sacramento Zoo
Knoxville, Tennessee Sacramento, California
Judy St. Leger, DVM Christian Walzer, DrMedVet
Sea World San Diego Professor for Wildlife Medicine and In-situ
San Diego, California Conservation
Research Institute for Wildlife Ecology
Cynthia E. Stringfield, DVM, BS University of Veterinary Medicine
Professor Vienna, Austria
Exotic Animal Training Management/Animal Science
Moorpark College Martha Weber, DVM
Moorpark, California Staff Veterinarian
Staff Veterinarian St. Louis Zoo
America’s Teaching Zoo at Moorpark College St. Louis, Missouri
Moorpark, California
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Preface
With the sixth volume of Zoo and Wild Animal are all subject to pressures from the same or similar
Medicine we return to the Current Veterinary Therapy infectious agents and environmental stresses. All ani-
format. Topics were selected to address current issues. mals interrelate with one another. Determining how
Authors were selected for their experience and disease agents circulate in the world requires a holistic
expertise in captive wild animal medicine or in the approach to medicine.
field with free-ranging wildlife. The medical management of species or groups of
The sixth volume reflects a world view of some animals that may not have been thoroughly discussed
of the special challenges that face wild-animal veteri- elsewhere includes bustards and chamois. A topic of
narians as they seek to assist in the preservation and vital concern to the world is the potential for a pan-
conservation of wild animals. Countries represented demic of avian influenza to wreak havoc on humans
include Australia, Austria, Canada, China, England, and domestic and wild animal populations. The avian
Germany, Mexico, The Netherlands, Northern Ireland, chapter has been continually updated throughout the
Scotland, United Arab Emirates, and the United States. production of this book to keep current on what is
Some of the topics address current problems, such as happening worldwide with avian influenza.
chronic wasting disease in cervids and tuberculosis in This volume discusses animal medical management
free-ranging deer and elephants. Other topics describe of selected species in all the major vertebrate groups. It
newly emerging or newly recognized diseases,such as is hoped that there will be chapters of interest to all
paramyxovirus in bats and protozoal encephalitis in readers who are concerned about the preservation and
marine mammals. conservation of the world’s fauna.
One topic that is addressed and needs to be con-
sidered by all medical professionals is the growing Murray E. Fowler
awareness that wildlife, domestic animals, and humans R. Eric Miller
ix
Frontmatter-X4047.qxd 8/13/07 10:26 AM Page xi
Acknowledgments and
Dedication
Our thanks to the more than 50 authors who con- Once again, we thank our wives, Audrey and Mary
tributed 57 topics to the sixth volume of Zoo and Wild Jean, for vocal and moral support while we took time
Animal Medicine. This is especially significant because away from family activities to complete the task of
all of the royalties support research for wild animals, editing and bringing it all together.
with none going to the authors or editors. Wild This volume is dedicated to all veterinarians who
animals deserve our support. Thanks are also due to use their time, talents, expertise, and finances to care
the many researchers who are gathering data on the for and study wild animals throughout the world.
biology and medicine of wild animals.
Acknowledgment and thanks are expressed to the
institutions that supported the authors as they com-
pleted their writing tasks.
xi
Color plate-X4047.qxd 7/13/07 4:35 PM Page 24
Color Plate 2 Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Lack of
genetic diversity hampers providing optimal conservation
Color Plate 1 A killer whale (Orcinus orca) efforts for this species. (This image does not appear in the
breaching. A continual challenge for wildlife text.)
veterinarians and biologists is to provide an
optimal environment in captivity and also
to work for conservation in the wild. (This
image does not appear in the text.)
Color Plate 3 White tiger (Panthera tigris). This color variation is
accompanied by decreased immune competence. (This image
does not appear in the text.)
Color Plate 4 A blue and
yellow macaw (Ara ararauna).
Macaws are popular pet birds,
but serious concerns exist
regarding conservation issues
with pet sales. (This image
does not appear in the text.)
Ch01-X4047.qxd 8/9/07 11:36 AM Page 2
1
C H A P T E R
West Nile Virus in Birds
and Mammals
DOMINIC TRAVIS
ETIOLOGY WNV was first found in North America in New
York City in humans, equines, and free-ranging and
West Nile virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne virus captive wildlife in 1999.7,40,58,71 Since 1999 in the U.S.,
(arbovirus) in the family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus— more than 20,000 humans have been infected, causing
Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex—that includes more than 700 deaths, and more than 23,000 equine
Alfuy, Cacipacore, Japanese encephalitis, Koutango, cases and hundreds of thousands of avian cases have
Kunjin, Murray Valley encephalitis, St. Louis been reported. Most cases occur in North America
encephalitis, Rocio, Stratford, Usutu, West Nile, and during the summer and fall between July and October,
Yaounde viruses. Flaviviruses share a common size with peaks in August and September. Spread across
(40-60 nm), symmetry (enveloped, icosahedral nucleo- North America to all 48 contiguous states and seven
capsid), nucleic acid (positive-sense, single-stranded Canadian provinces has been documented in twice-
RNAof ~10,000-11,000 bases), and appearance on elec- weekly summary reports available on the U.S. Centers
tron microscopy. The close antigenic relationship of for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) World Wide
the flaviviruses, particularly those belonging to the Web site* and by interactive maps collated by the U.S.
Japanese encephalitis complex, accounts for the cross- Geologic Survey.† In Canada, Health Canada summa-
reactions observed in diagnostic serologic assays.31 rizes WNV activity.‡Since 1999, surveillance data have
shown WNV activity in the Cayman Islands in 2001
(CDC); birds in Jamaica23 and Guadeloupe64 in 2002;
HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION horses, humans, and wildlife in Mexico in 20026,24,49;
and birds in the Dominican Republic in 200341 and in
WNV has been described in Africa, Europe, the Puerto Rico and El Salvador in 2004.17
Middle East, West and Central Asia, Oceania (subtype
Kunjin), and most recently in the Western Hemisphere.
It was first isolated from a febrile adult woman in TRANSMISSION
the West Nile District of Uganda in 1937, and its
ecology was first characterized in Egypt in the 1950s. The arboviral encephalitides are zoonotic, being main-
The virus became recognized as a cause of severe tained in complex life cycles involving a nonhuman
human meningitis or encephalitis in Israel in 1957. primary vertebrate host and a primary arthropod
Equine disease was first noted in Egypt and France vector. Transmission occurs between susceptible verte-
in the early 1960s.33,40,57 Recent outbreaks of WNV brate hosts by blood-feeding arthropod mosquitoes,
encephalitis in humans have occurred in Algeria in sand flies, ceratopogonids, “no-see-ums,” and ticks.1,2,48,68
1994, Romania in 1996–1997, the Czech Republic Infection usually occurs as a result of a mosquito bite
in 1997, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in while taking a blood meal. Normal transmission cycles
1998, Russia in 1999, the United States (U.S.) in usually remain undetected until humans or other
1999–2003,7,10,19,58 and Israel in 2000.33 Epizootics have mammals become “accidentally” infected, potentially
occurred in horses around the Mediterranean
(Morocco in 1996, Italy in 1998, France in 2000),57 and
in the U.S. in 1999–2001.61,78 A thorough review of *http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/surv&control.
htm.
pre–North American WNV ecologic history was pub- †http://westnilemaps.usgs.gov/index.html.
lished by Komar.40 ‡http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/westnile/.
2