World Religions RL. Vol. 2. Almanac - Ursi's Eso Garden

223 Pages·2007·22.2 MB·English

World Religions
Almanac
World Religions
Almanac
VOLUME 2
Michael J. O’Neal and J. Sydney Jones
Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt, Editors
10
Hinduism
Hinduism, the most common religion of the Indian subcontinent,
is a South Asian religion based on traditions that emerged around
1500 BCE and whose followers are called Hindus. In India, Hinduism is
called Sanatana Dharma, which means ‘‘eternal religion’’ or Vaidika
Dharma,whichmeans‘‘religionoftheVedas,’’asetofHinduscriptures
(holy writings). Hinduism differs from many of the world’s major reli-
gions because it does not have a standard theology (discussion about
the nature of God or gods), a specific founder or prophet, a systematic
moral code, or an organizational structure. Hinduism can be thought
of as a loose association of religions, each differing from the others
butallsharingacommonsetofcorebeliefs.Hinduismisalsocommonly
regarded as a way of life or a philosophy (a search for a general under-
standing of values and reality) rather than a formalized religion.
Nonetheless, it is the world’s third largest religion, following Chris-
tianity and Islam. Estimates of its size range from 850 million to 1 bil-
lion (the highest estimate is 1.4 billion) followers, or approximately
14percentoftheworld’spopulation.Thecountrywiththelargestnum-
ber of Hindus is India, with about 751 million, representing 79 percent
of the nation’s population. The country with the highest share of
Hindus is Nepal, with 89 percent, or about 17.4 million. Other coun-
tries with significant Hindu populations are Bangladesh (11 percent;
12.6 million), Indonesia (2.5 percent; 4 million), Sri Lanka (15 percent;
2.8 million), and Mauritius (15 percent; 400,000). In the United States
about 0.5 percent of the population, or about 2 million people, are
Hindus, a sharp increase from 1980, when the number was only
about 387,000. Significant numbers of American Hindus are con-
centrated in the state of New York. Canada estimates that it is home
to about 157,000 Hindus. In Europe, the country with the highest
percentage of Hindus is England, with about 1 percent, or 410,000
people.
239
Hinduism
WORDS TO KNOW
artha: Prosperityandsuccessinmaterialaffairs. puja: Worship.
aum: Often spelled om, the sacred syllable and purusharthas: The four aims of Hinduism or
symbolofHinduism;a symboloftheunknow- ‘‘the doctrineofthefourfoldendoflife.’’
ablenatureofBrahma.
Rig Veda: The central scripture of Hinduism, a
Bhagavad Gita: A Sanskrit poem regarded as a collectionofinspiredhymnsandsongs.
Hinduscripture;partoftheepicMahabharata,
whichmeans‘‘GreatEpicoftheBharataDy- samsara: Theongoingcycle ofbirth,life,death,
nasty’’; examinesthenatureofGodandhow andrebirth.
mortalscanknowhim.
Sanskrit: An ancient Indo-European language
bhakti: Devotion. thatisthelanguageofHinduism,aswellas
ofmuchclassicalIndianliterature.
Brahma: Thecreator-god.
Shiva: The destroyer god, embodying the erotic
Brahman: The pantheistic (including all gods) andsexual.
principlethatseesallofrealityasa unity.
Shivaism: A major sect of Hinduism, which
dharma: Righteousness in one’s religious and sees Shiva (‘‘the Destroyer’’) as the central
personallife. god.
kama: Gratificationofthesenses. swastika: A pictorial character that symbolizes
theeternalnatureofBrahmabecauseitpoints
karma: Literally, ‘‘action’’; the principle that the
inalldirections.
consequencesofa person’sactiondetermines
howthatpersonwilllivehisorhernextlife. Upanishads: The core of Hindu philosophy;
collections of texts, originally part of the
moksha: Salvation;liberationfromsamsara.
Vedas, that explain such central Hindu beliefs
murti: Imageofagod. askarma,reincarnation,nirvana,thesoul,and
Brahman.
nirvana: The escape from the cycles of life and
deathtoachievesalvation. Vaishnavaism: AmajorsectofHinduism,which
seesVishnu(‘‘the Preserver’’) asthecentral
nivritti: People who choose to withdraw from
god.
theworldtoleada lifeofrenunciationand
contemplation. Vedas: The chief sacred scriptures of Hinduism;
meaningknowledge,wisdom,orvision.
pravritti: Peoplewhochoosetoliveintheworld
ratherthanwithdrawfromit. Vishnu: AlsocalledKrishna;thepreserver-god.
Membership in Hinduism requires no specific instruction or ritual.
A person who rejects the teachings of the Vedas (Hindu sacred texts) is
not a Hindu, but anyone who accepts them can properly be called a
Hindu.
240 WorldReligions:Almanac
Hinduism
History and development
Scholars(thosewhostudyaparticularsubject)debatetheoriginsofHin-
duism. Because some of the principles and practices of Hinduism dates
back thousands of years, before written records, it is difficult to attach
dates to its founding and development. In the nineteenth century the
so-called classical theory of the origins of Hinduism was developed.
Accordingtothisview,therootsofHinduismlayintheIndusValleyciv-
ilization and date back to 4000 BCE, perhaps even earlier. Then in about
1500 BCEtheareawasinvadedbyAryans,or Indo-Europeantribesfrom
CentralAsia.Ataboutthistime,accordingtothetheory,theIndusValley
civilizationdisappeared.Theinvadingtribesbroughtwiththemareligion
called Vedism. The theory held that Hinduism developed out of a min-
gling of Vedism and the Indus Valley culture.
Morerecentlymanyscholarshaverejectedtheclassicaltheory.Using
newer historical evidence, they believe that there was no Aryan invasion
and that Hinduism evolved directlyout of the beliefs of the Indus Valley
culture. Astronomers, or scientists who study the regular movements of
the stars and planets, point to a specific date for the ‘‘founding’’ of Hin-
duism, noting that one of Hinduism’s sacred texts describes the position
of the stars when Krishna, a Hindu god, was born; the stars were in this
position in 3102 BCE. Another significant date is 600 BCE, when one of
Hinduism’s most sacred texts, the Rig Veda, was formalized.
In the early centuries of the common era, a number of Hindu sects,
or subgroups, began to emerge. Each of these sects was dedicated to a
specific god or goddess. In the early twenty-first century most Hindus,
especially those in urban areas, are followers of one of three major divi-
sions within Hinduism. One is called Vaishnavaism, which sees Vishnu,
‘‘thePreserver,’’asthecentralgod.ThesecondiscalledShivaism,whose
followers see Shiva, ‘‘the Destroyer,’’ as the central god. The third divi-
sion consists of the Saktis, who worship Devi, ‘‘the Divine Mother’’ or
the mother aspect of God. Saktis recognize Devi as the mother of all
thingsandarepresentationofGod’sgreatness.Inruralareas,manyHin-
dusworshipavillagegodorgoddesswhoinfluencessuchmattersasfer-
tility and disease.
Scholars generally recognize four major periods in the history of
Hinduism: the Vedic Period, the Epic and Classical Period, the Medieval
Period,andtheModernPeriod.ThefirstwastheVedicPeriod,extending
roughlyfrom2000BCEtoabout400BCE.Duringthisperiodmostofthe
Hindu holy texts, including the Vedas, were written down, and most of
WorldReligions:Almanac 241
Hinduism
thebasicbeliefsofHinduismwereformed.ThesecondiscalledtheEpic
and Classical Period, extending roughly from 400 BCE to about 600 CE.
This was the period when Hinduism’s two great epic poems, the Mahab-
harata (which contains the Rig Veda) and the Ramayana, were composed.
It was also during this period that the Hindu caste system was created.
(The caste system was and still is a hereditary social class system that
identifies the duties and obligations, but also restricts the occupations,
of Hindus.) The third major period was the Medieval Period, roughly
from 600 to 1800. During this period Hinduism experienced a great
deal of debate and developed numerous schools of thought.
DuringtheModernPeriod,from1800tothepresent,Hinduismhas
had increased contact with Western cultures and ways of thinking, pri-
marily because India was a British colony during much of this time. It
began to have more appeal to non-Indians after Swami Vivekananda
(1863–1902) appeared and spoke at the World Parliament of Religions
in Chicago, Illinois, in 1893. His paper presented there, ‘‘What Is Hindu-
ism?,’’ exposed many Westerners to Hinduism for the first time. Aiding
this spread of Hinduism is the International Society for Krishna Con-
sciousness, which has helped establish Hinduism around the world.
Early in the Modern Period, Hinduism began to fall into some disfavor
in India, but during the twentieth century the religion underwent a
revival.
The challenge for Hinduism in the twentieth and early twenty-first
centuries has been adaptation to modern life. Modern Hindus have
made efforts to lessen emphasis on ritual (a formal ceremony or way
ofdoingthings)anddifficult-to-understandpointsoftheology,toinclude
modern approaches to education, to see religion in more worldwide
terms, and to accommodate a growing role for women.
Sects and schisms
Hinduism is a remarkably tolerant, open, and elastic religion, meaning
that it incorporates numerous and diverse sects (branches or schools
ofthought)withoutconflictordivision.Hindusbelievethatbecausepeo-
plehavedifferenttemperaments,philosophies,andwaysoflookingatthe
world and the universe, religious faith should accommodate their views.
In addition, because people change over time, they achieve salvation by
taking different paths. The Upanishads, one of Hinduism’s sacred
texts, declares that all paths lead to the same goal, just as cows of differ-
ent colors all yield the same white milk. In the Bhagavad Gita, another
242 WorldReligions:Almanac
Hinduism
About Hinduism
(cid:2) Belief. Hindus believe that allreality is a to a sarong, wound around the waist
unity,expressedbytheconceptofBrah- and stretched to the ankles. The tradi-
man.Theyalsobelieveinthetransmi- tional dress for women is the sari, a
grationofthesoul,orreincarnation single, long, flowing piece of cloth,
(rebirth),andthatthequalityofaper- drapedsothatoneendformsaskirtand
son’snextlifeisdeterminedbyhisorher the other covers the shoulders and
character inthepresentlife. possibly the head.
(cid:2) Followers. Hinduism is the third-largest (cid:2) Texts. The major scriptures of Hinduism
religionintheworld,withabout850 includetheVedas,especiallytheoldest,
millionto1billionfollowers.MostHindus theRigVeda;theUpanishads,whichare
liveinIndia,butthereare significant discussionsandcommentsontheVedas;
Hindupopulationsinothercountriesof andtheBhagavadGita, whichexamines
SouthAsia. thenatureofGodandhowmortalscan
(cid:2) Name of God. Hindus worship many knowHim.
aspectsofthesupremebeing,Brahma, (cid:2) Sites. There is no single site that is sa-
asseparategodsorgoddesses.Twoof cred to Hindus, though the festival of
themostprominentare Vishnu,thepre- Kumbh Mela occurs four times every
server-god,andShiva,thedestroyer-god.
twelve years in the Indian cities of
(cid:2) Symbols. The two most prominent sym- Prayag, Haridwar, Uijain, and Nashik.
bolsinHinduismareaum(orom), All Hindus regard the Ganga (Ganges)
whichrepresentsthesacredsyllablethat River as holy.
Hindusintonetobecomeonewiththe (cid:2) Observances. Hindushaveagreatmany
unknowableBrahma,andtheswastika.
festivalsandotherobservances.Threeof
Theswastikaisa crosswithbranches
themostcommonareDiwali,thefestival
bentat rightanglesthatsymbolizethe
oflights;Navratri,‘‘ninenights,’’ the
eternalnatureofBrahma,pointinginall
celebrationofthetriumphofgoodover
directions.
evilandofthefeminineprincipleinthe
(cid:2) Worship.Hinduworshipdoesnothavea world;andKumbhMela,a pilgrimage
formalstructure.Worshipisoftencon- thatisheldfourtimesduringa twelve-
ductedaloneorwithfamilyinthehome. year cycle.
WhenHindusattendatemple,individual
(cid:2) Phrases. One commonly used word
worshipisaidedbypriests,thoughcom-
is namaste, a greeting offered with
munalworshipconsistsofprayersand
the palms of the hands placed together
readingsfromtheVedas.
at chest level and accompanied by a
(cid:2) Dress. The traditional dress of Hindu slight bow. It literally means ‘‘I bow to
men is the veshti, a long cloth, similar you.’’
WorldReligions:Almanac 243
Hinduism
sacred text, Vishnu says, ‘‘Howsoever men approach Me, even so do I
welcome them, for the path men take from every side is Mine.’’
Members of the various Hindu sects, rather than rejecting the view-
points of other sects (and even other religions), embrace them, believing
that each sect simply emphasizes one or more different aspects of the
same central faith. Accordingly, the history of Hinduism has been with-
out the violence that has characterized religious disputes in other faiths
such as ChristianityandIslam. Atthesametime,Hinduismis acomplex
religion, with numerous sects and subsects.
Vaishnavas, Saivas, and Saktis Overall, Hinduism can be divided into
three broad sects or classes: Vaishnavas, who worship Vishnu; Saivas, who
worship Shiva; and Saktis, who worship Devi, or the mother aspect of
God, a feminine principle that gives birth and nurtures. Other major sects
includetheSauras,whoworshipthesun-god;theGanapatyas,whoworship
Ganesh; and the Kumaras, who worship Skanda as the supreme God.
The first major sect in Hinduism is Vaishnavaism, whose followers
are called Vaishnavas. This sect itself covers a number of branches.
The oldest one is the Sri Sampradaya, which was founded by Ramanuja
(c. 1017–1137) some time in the middle of the twelfth century. The fol-
lowers of Ramanuja worship Vishnu and his wife, the goddess Lakshmi.
Some of the followers of Ramanuja (called the ‘‘Southern School’’) be-
lieve that self-surrender is the only way to salvation. The image they
use to describe this is a kitten that surrenders itself to its mother and
is carried around without any effort on its part. Others (called the
‘‘Northern School’’) believe that there are many other paths to salvation.
The image they use is of a young monkey that has to cling to its mother
as it is being carried about.
One branch of Vaishnavas that is likely to be familiar to Westerners
is the Caitanyas, otherwise known as the Hare Krishna Movement. In
India, this branch is prominent in Bengal and Orissa. This branch was
founded by Caitanya Mahaprabhu (or Lord Gouranga; 1485–1533).
TheCaitanyasworshipKrishnaasthesupremebeing,andmemberscon-
stantly repeat Krishna’s name. In the twentieth century Swami Prabhu-
pada founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, a
movement with branches all over the world. The movement asks its
members to recite with devotion and faith the Hare Krishna mantra:
‘‘Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama
Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare.’’ Rama refers to Krishna’s brother,
244 WorldReligions:Almanac
Hinduism
Balarama. The word hare has no specific meaning, but is rather part of
the mantra, a call to Krishna’s divine energy.
ThesecondmajorsectofHinduismistheSaivas,butonceagain,this
sect includes a number of branches. Chief among them are the Smartas,
most prominent in the Tamil region of India. Smartism is an ancient tra-
dition formed by Sankara (c. 788–c. 820) in the ninth century. It is
regardedasaliberalsectofHinduismandemphasizesalifeofmeditation
and thestudyof philosophicaltruths.Smartas worshipsix formsof god,
allowing each member to worship a ‘‘preferred deity,’’ or god, although
each deity is regarded as a reflection of one supreme god. According
to the Smartas, ‘‘It is the one Reality which appears to our ignorance
as a manifold [diverse] universe of names and forms and changes. Like
the gold of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself
unchanged. Such is Brahman, and That art Thou.’’ Chief among the
gods of the Smartas is Shiva. The Smartas, however, are extremely di-
verse and include at least forty-two different branches, many of them
associated with different regions of India.
ThethirdmajorsectistheSaktis,orSaktism.Saktism isfollowedby
hundreds of thousands of Indians, primarily in the Bengal region. Its
chief characteristics are its view of God as a destroyer, its emphasis on
the feminine, mother aspect of God, and its emphasis on ceremony
and ritual. The word sakti means ‘‘energy,’’ and Saktis see force or
power as the active principle of the universe, personified by Devi, the
mothergoddess.ThechiefgoalofSaktismismoksha,achievingsalvation
through the bliss that comes with total identification with the supreme
being.Another majorgoalisgoodworks.Thereareatleastfourdifferent
branches of the Saktis.
These are just a handful of Hindu sects. There are many more, each
emphasizing a different aspect of Hinduism. No one of these sects
believes that its doctrines or practices are more valid than those of
other sects. Since Hinduism sees all humans as an aspect of the divine,
and the variety of beliefs and practices is a manifestation, or demonstra-
tion, of the complexity of divine principles that fill the universe.
Basic beliefs
Hindu beliefs are complex and sometimes difficult to understand. In-
deed, many Westerners hold mistaken beliefs about Hinduism. Chief
among these is that Hinduism is ‘‘polytheistic,’’ meaning that Hindus
WorldReligions:Almanac 245
Hinduism
TherearenumerousHindugodsandgoddesses,butallareconsideredtobemanifestations,orforms,oftheoneGod,Brahma.
(cid:2)ARVINDGARG/CORBIS.
believe in more than one god. (Polytheism stands in contrast to mono-
theism, or the belief in one supreme god; Christianity, Judaism, and
Islam are the world’s major monotheistic religions.) This belief is only
partially true, for while Hinduism recognizes a variety of gods and god-
desses, all are seen as aspects, forms, or manifestations of a single su-
preme god, Brahma (in Sanskrit, Brahman). This type of religion is
termed henotheistic.
Another way of thinking of Hinduism is to see it as ‘‘Trinitarian,’’
meaning that there is one supreme god with three ‘‘persons’’ or forms.
The supreme god is Brahma, the creator-god who continues to create
new realities. In Hindu belief Brahma refers to a pantheistic principle
that sees all of reality as a unity. (‘‘Pantheism’’ is defined as any belief
system that equates God with the forces of nature orwith naturalprin-
ciples.)Theuniverse, then,isnotacollection ofpartsbuta singlething
that is divine throughout. Brahma simultaneously is the universe and
246 WorldReligions:Almanac