World Drug Report 2017: Booklet 4: Market Analysis of Synthetic Drugs: Amphetamine-Type Stimulants, New Psychoactive Substances

2017·2.4 MB·English

MARKET ANALYSIS OF
SYNTHETIC DRUGS
Amphetamine-type stimulants,
new psychoactive substances
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WORLD 7
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DRUG
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REPORT
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SYNTHETIC DRUGS:
Amphetamine-type stimulants
and new psychoactive substances
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This booklet constitutes the fourth part of the World Drug Report 2017.
© United Nations, May 2017. All rights reserved worldwide.
ISBN: 978-92-1-148296-6
eISBN: 978-92-1-060627-1
United Nations publication, Sales No. E.17.XI.10
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Suggested citation:
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2017
(ISBN: 978-92-1-148291-1, eISBN: 978-92-1-060623-3, United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.17.XI.6).
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reproduction, should be addressed to the Research and Trend Analysis Branch of UNODC.
DISCLAIMER
The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or
policies of UNODC or contributory organizations, nor does it imply any endorsement.
Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to:
Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
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E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.unodc.org/wdr2017
SYNTHETIC DRUGS:
Amphetamine-type stimulants
and new psychoactive substances
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PREFACE
I am proud to say that this year we are marking 20 As the World Drug Report 2017 clearly shows, there
years of the World Drug Report. is much work to be done to confront the many
harms inflicted by drugs, to health, development,
Over the past two decades, the United Nations
peace and security, in all regions of the world.
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has been
at the forefront of global research into complex areas Globally, there are an estimated minimum of
of drug use and supply, supporting international 190,000 — in most cases avoidable — premature
cooperation and informing policy choices with the deaths from drugs, the majority attributable to the
latest estimates, information on trends and use of opioids.
analysis.
The terrible impact of drug use on health can also
This year we are launching a new format, with the be seen in related cases of HIV, hepatitis and
report available as five separate booklets: the execu- tuberculosis.
tive summary, together with the report’s conclusions Much more needs to be done to ensure affordable
and policy implications; a global overview of drug access to effective scientific evidence-based preven-
use and supply; a market analysis of plant-based tion, treatment and care for the people who
drugs; a market analysis of synthetic drugs; and a desperately need them, including those in prison
thematic booklet on the links between drugs and settings. As just one example, this year’s report high-
organized crime, illicit financial flows, corruption lights the need to accelerate accessibility to the
and terrorism. We have done this in response to treatment of hepatitis C, a disease whose negative
readers’ needs and to improve user-friendliness, health impact on people who use drugs is far greater
while maintaining the rigorous standards expected than that of HIV/AIDS.
from the Office’s flagship publication.
Recent attention has focused on the threats posed
The 2017 report comes at a time when the interna- by methamphetamine and new psychoactive sub-
tional community has acted decisively to achieve stances (NPS). However, as the report shows, the
consensus on a way forward for joint action. manufacture of both cocaine and opioids is increas-
ing. These drugs remain serious concerns, and the
The outcome document unanimously adopted at
opioid crisis shows little sign of stopping.
last year’s special session of the General Assembly
on the world drug problem contains more than 100 The World Drug Report 2017 further looks at the
concrete recommendations for implementing bal- links with other forms of organized crime, illicit
anced, comprehensive and integrated approaches to financial flows, corruption and terrorism. It draws
effectively addressing and countering the world drug on the best available evidence and, most of all, high-
lights the fact that much more research needs to be
problem.
carried out in these areas.
Moreover, at its sixtieth session, in March 2017, the
Corruption is the great enabler of organized crime,
Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted resolution
and opportunities for corruption exist at every stage
60/1, reinforcing commitment to implementing the
of the drug supply chain. However, too little is
outcome document and charting a course to the
known about how different types of corruption
2019 target date of the 2009 Political Declaration
interact with drug markets.
and Plan of Action on the world drug problem, as
well as strengthening action towards the Plan of The outcome document of the special session of the
Action’s agreed goals and targets. General Assembly on the world drug problem and
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P Security Council resolutions express concern about As the special session of the General Assembly and
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RG terrorist groups profiting from drug trafficking, the recent session of the Commission on Narcotic
U among other forms of transnational organized crime. Drugs have shown, the international community is
R 4
D equipped to respond swiftly and decisively to global
D It is well established that there are terrorists and drug-related challenges.
RL non-State armed groups profiting from the drug
O
W trade — by some estimates, up to 85 per cent of For example, in March, the Commission scheduled
opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is in terri- two precursors and an analogue to the scheduled
tory under influence of the Taliban. drug fentanyl. This important step will make it
harder for criminals to illicitly manufacture fentanyl
However, evidence on the organized crime-terrorism
and its analogues and, I hope, can help to stem the
nexus remains patchy at best. Moreover, these links
tragic increase in opioid overdoses in recent years.
are not static. Relations between organized crime
and terrorists groups are always evolving, much like However, there remains an enormous need for
drug markets themselves. capacity-building and technical assistance, and fund-
ing continues to fall far short of political
As we have seen with the NPS market, drug use,
commitment. Further resources are urgently needed
supply, trafficking routes and the substances them-
to help all Member States implement the recom-
selves continue to shift and diversify at alarming
mendations contained in the outcome document
speed.
of the special session of the General Assembly and
Drugs continue to represent a major source of rev- achieve related targets under the Sustainable Devel-
enue for organized crime networks, but business opment Goals.
models are changing, with criminals exploiting new
The many evolving drug challenges also highlight
technologies, such as the darknet, that are altering
the importance of prevention — science- and rights-
the nature of the illicit drug trade and the types of
based drug use prevention — but also prevention
players involved, with looser, horizontal networks
of crime, corruption, terrorism and violent extrem-
and smaller groups becoming more significant. New
ism, in line with commitments under the
ways of delivering drugs further point to the need
conventions and United Nations standards and
to involve other sectors such as postal services in the
norms.
fight against drug trafficking.
Finally, I ask all Governments to help us improve
Clearly, countries must be able to act and react to
the evidence base for these reports. Areas such as
an ever-changing and formidable array of threats
the links between drugs, terrorism and insurgency
and problems. UNODC is fully engaged in strength-
clearly touch upon sensitive intelligence, and there
ening responses, working closely with our United
are legitimate concerns about compromising sources,
Nations partners and in line with the international
collection and operations. But if we want to effec-
drug control conventions, human rights instruments
tively address drug challenges we need to strengthen
and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
international cooperation and information-sharing
which are themselves complementary and mutually
to the extent possible, to close the gaps and ensure
reinforcing.
that joint action is targeted, effective and timely.
Yury Fedotov
Executive Director
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
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CONTENTS
BOOKLET 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY — CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF DRUG DEMAND AND SUPPLY
BOOKLET 2
Latest trends, cross-cutting issues
MARKET ANALYSIS OF PLANT-BASED DRUGS
BOOKLET 3
Opiates, cocaine, cannabis
MARKET ANALYSIS OF SYNTHETIC DRUGS
BOOKLET 4
Amphetamine-type stimulants, new psychoactive substances
PREFACE ...........................................................................................................3
EXPLANATORY NOTES .....................................................................................7
KEY FINDINGS ..................................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................11
A. AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS ..........................................................13
A.1. Amphetamine-type stimulants: market developments ..................................................................13
A.2. Methamphetamine: a dynamic global market ..............................................................................13
A.3. Amphetamine trafficking is spreading ..........................................................................................19
A.4. “Ecstasy” ......................................................................................................................................21
B. NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND OTHER SYNTHETIC DRUGS ........27
B.1. New psychoactive substances: market developments ....................................................................27
B.2. Characteristics of new psychoactive substances users and trends
in new psychoactive substances use ......................................................................................................31
B.3. How well-informed are users of new psychoactive substances and
how concerned are they about what they are using?.............................................................................35
B.4. Health risks of new psychoactive substances with stimulant effects ..............................................37
B.5. Synthetic cannabinoids: toxicity and fatalities ..............................................................................41
B.6. Use of hallucinogenic new psychoactive substances is increasing in South America ......................45
B.7. Synthetic opioids: the resurgence of fentanyl and its analogues ....................................................46
B.8. GBL: a ready source of GHB? ......................................................................................................49
B.9. Ketamine supply is increasing in South-East Asia ........................................................................50
ANNEX ...........................................................................................................53
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................55
REGIONAL GROUPINGS ..................................................................................57
THE DRUG PROBLEM AND ORGANIZED CRIME,
BOOKLET 5
ILLICIT FINANCIAL FLOWS, CORRUPTION AND TERRORISM
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and new psychoactive substances
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Acknowledgements
The World Drug Report 2017 was prepared by the Research and Trend Analysis Branch, Division for
Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, under the supervision
of Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director of the Division, and Angela Me, Chief of the Research and Trend
Analysis Branch.
General coordination and content overview Editing
Chloé Carpentier Jonathan Gibbons
Angela Me
Graphic design and production
Analysis and drafting Anja Korenblik
Conor Crean Suzanne Kunnen
Natascha Eichinger Kristina Kuttnig
Susan Ifeagwu
Coordination
Sabrina Levissianos
Francesca Massanello
Martin Raithelhuber
Agata Rybarska Data Support
Justice Tettey Diana Camerini
Raffaella Conconi
Data management and estimates production
Sarika Dewan
Enrico Bisogno
Tun Nay Soe Administrative support
Andrea Oterova Anja Held
Umidjon Rakhmonberdiev Iulia Lazar
Ali Saadeddin
Antoine Vella
Review and comments
The World Drug Report 2017 benefited from the expertise and invaluable contributions of UNODC
colleagues in the Drug Prevention and Health Branch of the Division for Operations; the Corruption
and Economic Crime Branch, the Organized Crime and Illicit Trafficking Branch and the Terrorism
Prevention Branch of the Division for Treaty Affairs; and the Research and Trend Analysis Branch of
the Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs.
The Research and Trend Analysis Branch acknowledges the invaluable contributions and advice
provided by the World Drug Report Scientific Advisory Committee:
Jonathan Caulkins
Paul Griffiths
Marya Hynes
Vicknasingam B. Kasinather
Letizia Paoli
Charles Parry
Peter Reuter
Francisco Thoumi
Alison Ritter
Brice De Ruyver
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and new psychoactive substances
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EXPLANATORY NOTES
The boundaries and names shown and the designa- All uses of the word “drug” in the World Drug Report
tions used on maps do not imply official endorsement refer to substances under the control of the inter-
or acceptance by the United Nations. A dotted line national drug control conventions.
represents approximately the line of control in
All analysis contained in the World Drug Report is
Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Paki-
based on the official data submitted by Member
stan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
States to the United Nations Office on Drugs and
not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Disputed
Crime through the annual report questionnaire
boundaries (China/India) are represented by cross-
unless indicated otherwise.
hatch owing to the difficulty of showing sufficient
detail. The data on population used in the World Drug
Report are taken from: United Nations, Department
The designations employed and the presentation of
of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Divi-
the material in the World Drug Report do not imply
sion, World Population Prospects: The 2015
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
Revision.
part of the Secretariat of the United Nations con-
cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city References to dollars ($) are to United States dollars,
or area, or of its authorities or concerning the delimi- unless otherwise stated.
tation of its frontiers or boundaries.
References to tons are to metric tons, unless other-
Countries and areas are referred to by the names wise stated. R stands for the correlation coefficient,
that were in official use at the time the relevant data used as measure of the strength of a statistical rela-
were collected. tionship between two or more variables, ranging
from 0 to 1 in case of a positive correlation or from
All references to Kosovo in the World Drug Report,
0 to -1 in case of a negative correlation.
if any, should be understood to be in compliance
with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).
Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity
about the distinctions between “drug use”, “drug
misuse” and “drug abuse”, the neutral terms “drug
use” and “drug consumption” are used in the World
Drug Report.
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KEY FINDINGS
Expanding market for synthetic drugs first time, making East and South-East Asia the lead-
ing subregions for methamphetamine seizures
Unlike the manufacture of heroin and cocaine, the
worldwide. While this may be a reflection of an
manufacture of synthetic drugs is not geographically
increase in the effectiveness of law enforcement in
constrained, as the process does not involve the
East and South-East Asia, methamphetamine traf-
extraction of active constituents from plants that
ficking routes appear to be increasingly connecting
have to be cultivated in certain conditions for them
previously unconnected markets in various subre-
to grow. Yet any analysis of the synthetic drugs
gions. Of particular note is the large increase in
market is complicated by the fact that information
methamphetamine seizures in China.
on synthetic drug manufacture is limited, which
prevents the estimation of the volume of such drugs The expansion of the methamphetamine market in
being manufactured worldwide. Nevertheless, data East and South-East Asia is visible in the, albeit
on seizures and use suggest that the supply of syn- scarce, information available on methamphetamine
thetic drugs is expanding. use and treatment. In 2015, experts in several coun-
tries in the subregion reported a perceived increase
An increasing number of countries are reporting
in the use of both crystalline methamphetamine and
seizures of synthetic new psychoactive substances
methamphetamine tablets. They also considered
(NPS), with over 20 tons seized in 2015. Seizures
methamphetamine to be the most commonly used
of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) doubled in
drug in some of those countries. In the same year,
the five years prior to 2015, to reach 191 tons in
people receiving treatment for methamphetamine
2015. This was a result of sharp increases in the
use accounted for the largest share of people treated
amounts of amphetamines seized, of which meth-
for drug use in the majority of countries and terri-
amphetamine accounted for some 61-80 per cent
tories in East and South-East Asia that reported on
annually during that period.
that indicator.
Methamphetamine accounts for
In Oceania, there has been an increase in both the
considerable harm
quantities of methamphetamine seized and the prev-
Disorders related to the use of amphetamines
alence of its use.
account for a considerable share of the global burden
Amphetamine trafficking expanding in
of disease attributable to drug use disorders, second
Asia and Central America
only to those related to the use of opioids. Available
data show that, among amphetamines, metham- In contrast to methamphetamine, amphetamine has
phetamine represents the greatest global health been confined to fewer subregions, such as the Near
threat. Methamphetamine use is spreading and an and Middle East and Western and Central Europe.
increasing number of methamphetamine users are The quantities of amphetamine seized in 2015 point
seeking treatment. In addition to the established to a possible recent expansion of the amphetamine
and expanding market for methamphetamine in market in South-Eastern Europe, but this may be
East and South-East Asia and Oceania, there are simply related to the large amphetamine market in
growing concerns about methamphetamine use in the neighbouring Near and Middle East. Quantities
North America, South-West Asia and parts of of amphetamine seized also sharply increased in
Europe. Central America and South-West Asia.
Geographical shift in the “Ecstasy” market becoming increasingly
methamphetamine market multifaceted
A major geographical shift appears to have occurred While smaller than the market for methampheta-
in the methamphetamine market in the last five mine, the “ecstasy” market has grown in complexity
years. In 2015, the quantity of methamphetamine and the variety of “ecstasy” products available to
intercepted in East and South-East Asia surpassed drug users has increased. The three main types are:
the quantity intercepted in North America for the (a) “ecstasy” tablets containing little or no MDMA
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O (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine); (b) A core group of over 80 NPS were reported every
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E “ecstasy” tablets with an extremely high content of year during the period 2009-2015 and appear to
R
G MDMA; and (c) “ecstasy” sold in powder or crystal have become established on the global market; a
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R form, under different street names. “Ecstasy” tablets number of them have been placed under interna-
D
D with a high MDMA content are of particular con- tional control. On the other hand, about 60 NPS
L cern in Europe, where law enforcement entities have seem to have disappeared from the market since
R
O
W also discovered industrial-scale MDMA manufac- 2013. Problems in identifying them in a laboratory
turing facilities. may be a factor, however, in the low level of report-
ing of these lesser-known substances.
New psychoactive substances potentially
more lethal than other drugs, but market Use of synthetic cannabinoid products
still relatively small associated with severe health risks
Despite the large number of NPS present in drug Synthetic cannabinoids are not simply synthetic
markets, the overall size of the market for such sub- versions of the substances occurring in herbal can-
stances is still relatively small when compared with nabis, as street names such as “synthetic cannabis”
other drug markets. However, one of the most trou- or “synthetic marijuana” may suggest. They are a
bling aspects of NPS is that users are unaware of the diverse group of potent psychoactive compounds
content and the dosage of the psychoactive sub- that are designed to mimic the desired effects of
stances contained in some NPS. This potentially cannabis, of which there are also many new products
exposes users of NPS to additional serious health on the market. Despite the predominance of syn-
risks. Little or no scientific information is available thetic cannabinoids on the spectrum of NPS, users
to determine the effects that these products may of cannabis have reported that they prefer natural
have and how best to counteract them. cannabis to synthetic cannabinoids.
A number of NPS have been implicated in fatalities, There is growing recognition of the harm associated
while the injecting of NPS with stimulant effects with intoxication resulting from the use of synthetic
has been reported among high-risk groups of people cannabinoids. While, in general, these health harms
who use drugs, further aggravating the health risks are not dissimilar to the intoxication caused by natu-
to which people in those groups are exposed. ral cannabis, the use of products containing certain
synthetic cannabinoids has been associated with
New psychoactive substances continue to
severe adverse health events including hospitalisa-
evolve, diversify and grow
tions and fatalities. It cannot be concluded, however,
The NPS market continues to be very dynamic and
that the untoward or undesirable effects of synthetic
is characterized by the emergence of large numbers
cannabinoids will limit their uptake or use.
of new substances belonging to diverse chemical
Opioid market in a constant state of
groups. Between 2009 and 2016, 106 countries and
change
territories reported the emergence of 739 different
NPS to UNODC. The opioid market is becoming more diversified:
this is illustrated by the example of the United States,
Marketed in many different ways and forms, new
where the opioid market comprises a combination
substances often emerge quickly and disappear
of internationally controlled substances, particularly
again, while some become used regularly among a
heroin, and prescription medicines that are either
small group of users. Several countries have reported
diverted from the legal market or produced as coun-
NPS being sold under the name of controlled drugs
terfeit medicines on a large scale. These counterfeit
such as “LSD” and “ecstasy”. Often used for reasons
medicines are made to look like pharmaceutical
similar to those for the use of traditional drugs, their
products while actually containing fentanyl and fen-
easy availability and low prices have made certain
tanyl analogues, as well as non-opioid substances
NPS highly attractive to some groups of drug users.
such as derivatives of benzodiazepine and
A market for some NPS in their own right now
methylphenidate.
appears to have been established.
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