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World Drug Report 2017: Booklet 3: Market Analysis of Plant-Based Drugs: Opiates, Cocaine, Cannabis PDF

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MARKET ANALYSIS OF PLANT-BASED DRUGS Opiates, cocaine, cannabis 3 WORLD 7 1 DRUG 0 REPORT 2 This booklet constitutes the third part of the World Drug Report 2017. © United Nations, May 2017. All rights reserved worldwide. ISBN: 978-92-1-148294-2 eISBN: 978-92-1-060626-4 United Nations publication, Sales No. E.17.XI.9 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. Suggested citation: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2017 (ISBN: 978-92-1-148291-1, eISBN: 978-92-1-060623-3, United Nations publication, Sales No. E.17.XI.6). No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from UNODC. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Research and Trend Analysis Branch of UNODC. DISCLAIMER The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organizations, nor does it imply any endorsement. Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to: Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime PO Box 500 1400 Vienna Austria Tel: (+43) 1 26060 0 Fax: (+43) 1 26060 5827 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.unodc.org/wdr2017 PREFACE I am proud to say that this year we are marking 20 As the World Drug Report 2017 clearly shows, there years of the World Drug Report. is much work to be done to confront the many harms inflicted by drugs, to health, development, Over the past two decades, the United Nations peace and security, in all regions of the world. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has been at the forefront of global research into complex areas Globally, there are an estimated minimum of of drug use and supply, supporting international 190,000 — in most cases avoidable — premature cooperation and informing policy choices with the deaths from drugs, the majority attributable to the latest estimates, information on trends and use of opioids. analysis. The terrible impact of drug use on health can also This year we are launching a new format, with the be seen in related cases of HIV, hepatitis and report available as five separate booklets: the execu- tuberculosis. tive summary, together with the report’s conclusions Much more needs to be done to ensure affordable and policy implications; a global overview of drug access to effective scientific evidence-based preven- use and supply; a market analysis of plant-based tion, treatment and care for the people who drugs; a market analysis of synthetic drugs; and a desperately need them, including those in prison thematic booklet on the links between drugs and settings. As just one example, this year’s report high- organized crime, illicit financial flows, corruption lights the need to accelerate accessibility to the and terrorism. We have done this in response to treatment of hepatitis C, a disease whose negative readers’ needs and to improve user-friendliness, health impact on people who use drugs is far greater while maintaining the rigorous standards expected than that of HIV/AIDS. from the Office’s flagship publication. Recent attention has focused on the threats posed The 2017 report comes at a time when the interna- by methamphetamine and new psychoactive sub- tional community has acted decisively to achieve stances (NPS). However, as the report shows, the consensus on a way forward for joint action. manufacture of both cocaine and opioids is increas- ing. These drugs remain serious concerns, and the The outcome document unanimously adopted at opioid crisis shows little sign of stopping. last year’s special session of the General Assembly on the world drug problem contains more than 100 The World Drug Report 2017 further looks at the concrete recommendations for implementing bal- links with other forms of organized crime, illicit anced, comprehensive and integrated approaches to financial flows, corruption and terrorism. It draws effectively addressing and countering the world drug on the best available evidence and, most of all, high- lights the fact that much more research needs to be problem. carried out in these areas. Moreover, at its sixtieth session, in March 2017, the Corruption is the great enabler of organized crime, Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted resolution and opportunities for corruption exist at every stage 60/1, reinforcing commitment to implementing the of the drug supply chain. However, too little is outcome document and charting a course to the known about how different types of corruption 2019 target date of the 2009 Political Declaration interact with drug markets. and Plan of Action on the world drug problem, as well as strengthening action towards the Plan of The outcome document of the special session of the Action’s agreed goals and targets. General Assembly on the world drug problem and 3 7 1 0 2 T R O Security Council resolutions express concern about As the special session of the General Assembly and P E terrorist groups profiting from drug trafficking, the recent session of the Commission on Narcotic R G among other forms of transnational organized crime. Drugs have shown, the international community is U DR It is well established that there are terrorists and equipped to respond swiftly and decisively to global D non-State armed groups profiting from the drug drug-related challenges. L OR trade — by some estimates, up to 85 per cent of For example, in March, the Commission scheduled W opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is in terri- two precursors and an analogue to the scheduled tory under influence of the Taliban. drug fentanyl. This important step will make it harder for criminals to illicitly manufacture fentanyl However, evidence on the organized crime-terrorism and its analogues and, I hope, can help to stem the nexus remains patchy at best. Moreover, these links tragic increase in opioid overdoses in recent years. are not static. Relations between organized crime and terrorists groups are always evolving, much like However, there remains an enormous need for drug markets themselves. capacity-building and technical assistance, and fund- ing continues to fall far short of political As we have seen with the NPS market, drug use, commitment. Further resources are urgently needed supply, trafficking routes and the substances them- to help all Member States implement the recom- selves continue to shift and diversify at alarming mendations contained in the outcome document speed. of the special session of the General Assembly and Drugs continue to represent a major source of rev- achieve related targets under the Sustainable Devel- enue for organized crime networks, but business opment Goals. models are changing, with criminals exploiting new The many evolving drug challenges also highlight technologies, such as the darknet, that are altering the importance of prevention — science- and rights- the nature of the illicit drug trade and the types of based drug use prevention — but also prevention players involved, with looser, horizontal networks of crime, corruption, terrorism and violent extrem- and smaller groups becoming more significant. New ism, in line with commitments under the ways of delivering drugs further point to the need conventions and United Nations standards and to involve other sectors such as postal services in the norms. fight against drug trafficking. Finally, I ask all Governments to help us improve Clearly, countries must be able to act and react to the evidence base for these reports. Areas such as an ever-changing and formidable array of threats the links between drugs, terrorism and insurgency and problems. UNODC is fully engaged in strength- clearly touch upon sensitive intelligence, and there ening responses, working closely with our United are legitimate concerns about compromising sources, Nations partners and in line with the international collection and operations. But if we want to effec- drug control conventions, human rights instruments tively address drug challenges we need to strengthen and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, international cooperation and information-sharing which are themselves complementary and mutually to the extent possible, to close the gaps and ensure reinforcing. that joint action is targeted, effective and timely. Yury Fedotov Executive Director United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 4 CONTENTS BOOKLET 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY — CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF DRUG DEMAND AND SUPPLY BOOKLET 2 Latest trends, cross-cutting issues MARKET ANALYSIS OF PLANT-BASED DRUGS BOOKLET 3 Opiates, cocaine, cannabis PREFACE ...........................................................................................................3 EXPLANATORY NOTES .....................................................................................7 KEY FINDINGS ..................................................................................................9 INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................11 A. THE OPIATE MARKET ................................................................................13 Global production of opiates increased by around 30 per cent in 2016 ...............................................13 Seizures of opiates have decreased in recent years ................................................................................14 Most opiates continue to be trafficked along the Balkan route ............................................................16 Seizures of opiates out of South-East Asia on the increase ...................................................................20 Seizures of opiates out of Latin America also on the increase ...............................................................21 The global opiate market appears stable ..............................................................................................21 B. THE COCAINE MARKET ..............................................................................25 Coca bush cultivation on the increased in the last two years ................................................................25 Record cocaine seizures in 2015, trafficked primarily from South America to North America, Western and Central Europe ....................................................................27 Global figures on cocaine use mask important regional patterns and trends ........................................28 Trafficking of cocaine ..........................................................................................................................31 C. THE CANNABIS MARKET ............................................................................37 Cannabis production remains a global phenomenon ...........................................................................37 Cannabis trafficking ............................................................................................................................38 Cannabis use has remained quite stable at the global level in recent years, despite indications that it continues to increase in Africa and Asia ......................................................41 Developments in measures regulating recreational cannabis use in the United States and Uruguay .....45 ANNEX ...........................................................................................................57 GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................65 REGIONAL GROUPINGS .................................................................................67 MARKET ANALYSIS OF SYNTHETIC DRUGS BOOKLET 4 Amphetamine-type stimulants, new psychoactive substances THE DRUG PROBLEM AND ORGANIZED CRIME, BOOKLET 5 ILLICIT FINANCIAL FLOWS, CORRUPTION AND TERRORISM 5 Acknowledgements The World Drug Report 2017 was prepared by the Research and Trend Analysis Branch, Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, under the supervision of Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director of the Division, and Angela Me, Chief of the Research and Trend Analysis Branch. General coordination and content overview Graphic design and production Chloé Carpentier Anja Korenblik Angela Me Suzanne Kunnen Kristina Kuttnig Analysis and drafting Kamran Niaz Coordination Thomas Pietschmann Francesca Massanello Data management and estimates production Data Support Enrico Bisogno Diana Camerini Andrea Oterova Raffaella Conconi Umidjon Rakhmonberdiev Sarika Dewan Ali Saadeddin Administrative support Antoine Vella Anja Held Editing Iulia Lazar Jonathan Gibbons Review and comments The World Drug Report 2017 benefited from the expertise and invaluable contributions of UNODC colleagues in the Drug Prevention and Health Branch of the Division for Operations; the Corruption and Economic Crime Branch, the Organized Crime and Illicit Trafficking Branch and the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the Division for Treaty Affairs; and the Research and Trend Analysis Branch of the Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs. The Research and Trend Analysis Branch acknowledges the invaluable contributions and advice provided by the World Drug Report Scientific Advisory Committee: Jonathan Caulkins Paul Griffiths Marya Hynes Vicknasingam B. Kasinather Letizia Paoli Charles Parry Peter Reuter Francisco Thoumi Alison Ritter Brice De Ruyver 6 EXPLANATORY NOTES The boundaries and names shown and the designa- All uses of the word “drug” in the World Drug Report tions used on maps do not imply official endorsement refer to substances under the control of the inter- or acceptance by the United Nations. A dotted line national drug control conventions. represents approximately the line of control in All analysis contained in the World Drug Report is Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Paki- based on the official data submitted by Member stan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has States to the United Nations Office on Drugs and not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Disputed Crime through the annual report questionnaire boundaries (China/India) are represented by cross- unless indicated otherwise. hatch owing to the difficulty of showing sufficient detail. The data on population used in the World Drug Report are taken from: United Nations, Department The designations employed and the presentation of of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Divi- the material in the World Drug Report do not imply sion, World Population Prospects: The 2015 the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the Revision. part of the Secretariat of the United Nations con- cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city References to dollars ($) are to United States dollars, or area, or of its authorities or concerning the delimi- unless otherwise stated. tation of its frontiers or boundaries. References to tons are to metric tons, unless other- Countries and areas are referred to by the names wise stated. R stands for the correlation coefficient, that were in official use at the time the relevant data used as measure of the strength of a statistical rela- were collected. tionship between two or more variables, ranging from 0 to 1 in case of a positive correlation or from All references to Kosovo in the World Drug Report, 0 to -1 in case of a negative correlation. if any, should be understood to be in compliance with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999). Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity about the distinctions between “drug use”, “drug misuse” and “drug abuse”, the neutral terms “drug use” and “drug consumption” are used in the World Drug Report. 7 KEY FINDINGS Opium production on the increase Expansion of the cocaine market In 2016, global opium production increased by one Data on drug production, trafficking and use point third compared with the previous year. Although to an overall expansion of the market for cocaine there was also an increase in the size of the area under worldwide. Following a long-term decline, coca bush opium poppy cultivation, the major increase in cultivation increased by 30 per cent during the opium production was primarily the result of an period 2013-2015, mainly as a result of increased improvement in opium poppy yields in Afghanistan cultivation in Colombia. Total global manufacture compared with the previous year. At 6,380 tons, of pure cocaine hydrochloride reached 1,125 tons however, total global opium production was still in 2015, representing an overall increase of 25 per some 20 per cent lower than at its peak in 2014, cent over 2013. and was close to the average reported in the past five Cocaine use appears to be increasing in the two years. largest markets, North America and Europe. The Seizures of both opium and heroin have remained prevalence of use of cocaine among the general pop- quite stable at the global level in recent years, sug- ulation and testing in the workforce suggest an gesting a smooth supply of heroin, irrespective of increase in cocaine use in the United States. In annual changes in opium production. The quantity Europe, early signs of increases in cocaine consump- of heroin seized in North America increased sharply tion, based on wastewater analysis, have been in 2015. This went in parallel with reports of reported. increasing heroin use and heroin-related deaths in that subregion. The quantities of cocaine seized are also on the increase; they reach a record level of 864 tons in Growing importance of Caucasus branch 2015 worldwide. of the Balkan route Cocaine trafficking expanding eastwards Drug flows are in a constant state of flux. With the changes brought by globalization and the spread of Although still comparatively small overall, there are new communications technologies, drug flows are indications that cocaine consumption in several characterized more than ever by rapid changes in countries in Asia continues to rise. Possible proof trafficking routes, modi operandi and concealment of this was a very large seizure (900 kg) of cocaine methods. in Sri Lanka in 2016 and another of 500 kg in Dji- bouti in 2017, which was probably en route to Asia. With about 40 per cent of global heroin and mor- phine seizures in 2015 being made in countries on Overall, in 2015, the quantities of cocaine inter- the so-called “Balkan route”, the route appears to cepted in Asia increased by more than 40 per cent remain the world’s principal opiate trafficking route. compared with the previous year, with increases While overall quantities seized on the Balkan route reported across all subregions. declined in 2015, an alternative branch of the route, Increasingly effective law enforcement through the Caucasus countries, appears to have been gaining in importance in recent years. That Reflecting improvements in international coopera- route circumvents Turkey, where the recent increase tion, law enforcement seems to be becoming in flows of refugees heading towards countries in increasingly effective. Evidence of this is the fact the European Union may have pushed traffickers that the estimated global interception rate of cocaine to seek other options. increased to between 45 and 55 per cent in 2015, 9 7 1 0 2 T R O P a record level. The estimated global interception was already in the process of changing the cannabis E RG rate of opiates also rose from between 9 and 13 per use market in those jurisdictions when the legaliza- U cent during the period 1980-1997 to between 23 tion measures were put in place. R D and 32 per cent during the period 2009-2015. D The major increase in cannabis use in those juris- RL Crossover between plant-based and dictions started in 2008, in parallel with measures O W synthetic cannabinoids allowing the medical use of cannabis (although the cannabis products dispensed have not gone through Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists were first the rigours of pharmaceutical product development), reported in 2004 as new psychoactive substances decreasing risk perceptions of harm from cannabis (NPS). Synthetic cannabinoids are a diverse group use and an ongoing debate around the legalization of psychoactive substances that are dissimilar to tet- of the medical and recreational use of cannabis. rahydrocannabinol (the principle psychoactive Since the approval of legalization measures, the constituent of natural cannabis). increasing trend in cannabis use in those jurisdic- Despite the predominance of synthetic cannabinoids tions has continued. on the spectrum of NPS, users of cannabis have Yet while the increases in those jurisdictions are more reported that they prefer natural cannabis. The use marked than in states where such use has not been of synthetic cannabinoids is perceived by users to legalized, cannabis use has increased at the national be associated with more overall negative effects than level. The developments observed in the jurisdictions the use of natural cannabis. Indeed, there is grow- where the use of cannabis has been legalized (includ- ing recognition of the harms associated with ing the perception of risk of harm from cannabis intoxication resulting from the use of synthetic can- use) appear to have affected the cannabis market nabinoids. Such harms include tachycardia, and users’ perceptions of cannabis nationwide. It psychosis, agitation, anxiety, breathing difficulties has been observed that increases in cannabis use and seizures. It cannot be concluded, however, that across the United States are disproportionally asso- the untoward or undesirable effects of synthetic can- ciated with adults with a low socioeconomic status nabinoids will limit their uptake or use. who are regular and heavy users of cannabis. Most jurisdictions in the United States Cannabis regulation in Uruguay now permit access to medical cannabis In 2013, the Government of Uruguay approved while nine allow the cultivation of legislation regulating the cultivation, production, cannabis for recreational use dispensing and use of cannabis for recreational pur- The latest voter initiatives in the United States, in poses. Since then, the Government has passed 2016, allowed the legalization of cannabis for rec- additional decrees and ordinances concerning the reational use in an additional four states. Cultivation implementation of specific elements of the cannabis of cannabis for recreational use is now allowed in regulations. They include regulating the medical use eight states and the District of Columbia. Of greater of cannabis, the marketing and dispensation of can- importance is that in those jurisdictions, with the nabis for recreational use, including through exception of the District of Columbia, licences are pharmacies, and the registration of recreational can- now granted to for-profit companies to produce and nabis users. However, the impact of the provisions sell a range of products for the medical and regulating the recreational use of cannabis in Uru- non-medical use of cannabis. guay will be evident only after they have been fully implemented, and will require close monitoring over In the jurisdictions where the recreational use of time. cannabis is now permitted, cannabis use has increased among the adult population and remains higher than the national average. This trend preceded the change in legislation in those jurisdictions, however. It is difficult to quantify the impact of the new cannabis legislation as it seems that a combination of elements 10

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