Women in Corporate Management

100 Pages·1997·3.957 MB·English

by  Ronald J. Burke (auth.), Ronald J. Burke (eds.)

Womenin
Corporate
Management
Edited by
Ronald J. Burke
York University,
Ontario, Canada
Reprinted from Journal ofB usiness Ethics
VoI. 16 (9), 1997
••
Springer Science+Business Media, B.V.
Table of Contents
RONALD J. BURKE / Women in Corporate Management 1-3
MADELINE E. HEILMAN / Sex Discrimination and the Affirmative Action Remedy: The Role of
Sex Stereotypes 5-17
REKHA KARAMBAYYA / In Shouts and Whispers: Paradoxes Facing Women of Colour in
cngruruzations 19-25
S. GAYLE BAUGH / On the Persistence of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace 27-36
RONALD J. BURKE / Women on Corporate Boards of Directors: A Needed Resource 37-43
CAROL AGOCS / Institutionalized Resistence to Organizational Change: Denial, Inaction and
Repression 45-59
RONALD J. BURKE and SUSAN BLACK / Save the Males: Backlash in Orgruruzations 61-70
MARK MAIER / Gender Equity, Organizational Transformation and Challenger 71-90
L.E. FALKENBERG and L. BOLAND / Eliminating the Barriers to Employment Equity in Cana-
dian Workplace 91-103
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-94-010-6364-7 ISBN 978-94-011-5610-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-5610-3
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© 1997 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1997
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1997
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Women In Corporate Management
Ronald]. Burke
ABSTRACT. This introductory article positions the world (Adler and Izraeli, 1988, 1994; Davidson
Special Issue devoted to women in corporate man and Cooper, 1993). The glass ceiling, that invis
agement. Women in all developing countries face a
ible but impenetrable barrier that keeps women
glass ceiling to advancement to senior management
out of the top levels of organizations, is a world
in medium and large organizations. It then reviews
wide phenomenon. Organizations are also begin
the eight manuscripts in the collection, integrating
ning to conclude that the full utilization and
women in management themes into the mainstream
development of the talents of all employees has
of business ethics.
become a business imperative (Schwartz, 1992).
If firms are to remain productive and competi
tive in an increasingly demanding global mar
Introduction 1
ketplace, they must recruit, retain, develop and
promote their most talented people - regardless
In 1990, the Journal of Business Ethics published
of their sex. This is increasingly seen not only as
two Special Issues containing articles on women
the right or ethical thing to do but also the smart
in management. Many of these papers were
thing to do. And in keeping with this realization,
presented at a conference hosted by Mount
a small number of leading edge organizations are
Saint Vincent University in Halifax, perhaps the
first national academic gathering in Canada attempting to become more women-friendly
(Morrison, 1992; Kinsley, 1993; Mattis, 1994).
devoted to this research topic. Most of the
This collection of articles serves several
authors were then just developing their research
purposes. First, it conveys how far women in
programs.
management research has come in a very short
Now, seven years later, the Journal of Business
time. Second, it will hopefully spur further
Ethics again features a Special Issue focussing on
women in corporate management. Much has research activity as well as efforts to describe best
practice in forward-thinking organizations.
happened during these years. There has been
Third, the collection more specifically attempts
increased research attention devoted to this area
to integrate women in management themes into
(Fagenson, 1993; Sekaran and Leong, 1992;
the mainstream of business ethics.
Davidson and Burke, 1994). There has been a
It examines issues of fairness and equal oppor
realization that barriers women face exist in
tunity for women within organizations. Women
medium to large organizations throughout the
and men typically agree that they want merit to
form the basis of managerial decision-making.
J. This supports the notion of a level-playing field,
Ronald Burke is currently a Professor of Organizational
one in which no individual is specially advan
Behavior, Faculty of Administrative Studies, York
taged or specially disadvantaged. The difficulty,
University. His research interests include work and
family, corporate restructuring and downsizing, occupa however, seems to be that women think that the
tional and life stress, and career development in organi pendulum still has not swung far enough whereas
zations. He is a member of the American Psychological some men think it has swung too far in women's
Association and the Academy of Management. favor. Considerable numbers of women and men
[1]
874 Ronald]. Burke
still believe that merit is not having the weight sexual harassment in the workplace despite
it should. widespread negative feelings about it and orga
The following specific questions come into nizational programs designed to eliminate it. She
mind. Is discrimination in hiring, job assign proposes that gender differences in perceptions
ments, promotion and pay decisions ethical? of sexual harassment and men's greater power in
Women, much more than men, are subjected to organizations permit men to legitimize their
a particularly troublesome kind of discrimination views. This results in a blame the victim phe
in the form of sexual harassment. Is the existence nomenon with limited attention to real change
of a hostile unfriendly work environment expe in organizational environments and responses.
rienced by some women fair? Is the setting of Ronald Burke presents results of a study of
targets for the advancement of women ethical? women serving on boards of directors of
This question has immediate relevance given the Canadian private and public sector organizations.
results of recent political elections and legislative Women constitute about five percent of the
initiatives currently underway in part of North membership of such boards. These women were
American to significantly change affirmative an impressive and talented group. In addition
action legislation. Is it ethical that white males they brought a variety of backgrounds and exper
in organizations have unearned advantages or tise to their director responsibilities. However,
privilege whereas other groups may be disad this elite group of women felt they had limited
vantaged? My hope is that a Special Issue of the impact or influence on women's issues and indi
Journal if Business Ethics appearing five years from cated several barriers faced by women in
now would have grappled with these questions, achieving board appointments. It is ironic that
and contributed to a greater understanding of women continue to have difficulty at this level
ways of developing a level-playing in the work despite a shortage of qualified board members in
place. general.
This collection contains eight articles. In the Carol Agocs turns her attention to the
first, Madeline Heilman considers the association question of organizational change, particularly
of sex stereotypes and sex discrimination in work resistance to change efforts which address
settings. Stereotypes of women operate to limit systemic discrimination in the workplace. She
their career progress. In spite of this several orga develops a typology of resistance consisting of
nizational conditions are noted which facilitate a sequence of forms of active resistance to change
the use of stereotypes in personnel decision from denial through inaction to repression.
making. She also provides evidence indicating Using response of senior managers to efforts of
that affirmative action programs and practices employment equity change agents, she illustrates
promote the stereotyping of women and con each of these forms of resistance. Change advo
tribute to, rather than solve, the problem of cates are encouraged to identify and analyze the
women's career progress. She advocates paying resistance they encounter to develop effective
close attention to the role of sex stereotypes in responses.
the sex discrimination process in designing and Ronald Burke and Susan Black consider the
implementing organizational interventions. recent upsurge in male backlash in organizations,
Rekha Karambayya then draws our attention as major sources of resistance to efforts to
to issues of race and gender and their intersec advance women. They examine its causes and
tion. She suggests that women of color face a manifestations, offer suggestions for addressing it,
series of paradoxical choices. Organizational and develop a research agenda. Male backlash has
research has generally ignored the importance of had its strongest affect on employment equity
race. She considers issues of identity (similarity legislation. There is now an emerging consensus
with other group members versus individuality) in north American society that the setting of
and ways of addressing issues of race (shouts goals or quotas - what has been termed reverse
versus whispers) as examples of paradox. discrimination - is still discrimination, however
Gayle Baugh examines the persistence of noble the intended consequences.
[2]
Women in Corporate Management 875
Mark Maier offers a different perspective on References
ways to advance gender equity. In his view, the
fallacy is to take the prevailing masculine in a Adler, M. J. and D. N. Izraeli: 1994, Competitive
managerial paradigm for granted. With the Frontiers: Women Managers in the Global Economy
Challenger disaster as the focal point, he shows (Blackwell, Cambridge, MA).
Adler, M. J. and D. M. Izraeli: 1988, Women in
the ways in which masculine management is
Management Worldwide (M. E. Sharpe, New York).
dysfunctional. He advocates, instead, a feminist
Davidson, M. J. and R. J. Burke: 1994, Women in
based organizational transformation to achieve
Management: Current Research Issues (Paul Chapman
not only gender equity, but more effective and
Publishing, London).
ethical behavior in work settings. Davidson M. J. and C. L. Cooper: 1993, European
Lastly, Loren Falkenberg and Louise Boland
Women in Business and Management (Paul Chapman
evaluate the success of employment equity Publishing, London).
programs in canada. They conclude that these Fagenson, E. A.: 1993, Women in Management (Sage
programs have had generally limited success. Publications, Newbury Park, Calif.).
They then offer suggestions for improving the Kinsley, M. J.: 1993, 'A Pragmatic Approach to
current system. The authors indicate that sup Workplace Equality', Business & the Contemporary
porting equity through internal self-regulation World 5, 171-184.
Mattis, M. c.: 1994, 'Organizational Initiatives in the
is likely to be more successful than further
USA for Advancing Managerial Women', in M. J.
government intervention. More specific organi
Davidson and R. J. Burke (eds.), Women in
zational actions such as changing employee atti
Management: Current Research Issues (Paul Chapman
tudes toward employment equity, providing clear
Publishing, London).
definitions and yardsticks, increasing employee
Morrison, A. M.: 1992, The New Leaders Gossey-Bass,
involvement in developing the plan and sup
San Francisco).
porting "enforced regulation" appear to be Schwartz, F. N.: 1992, Breaking with Tradition: ~men
important for achieving equity. and Work, the Facts oj Life (Warner Books, New
York).
Sekaran, U. and F. T. Leong: 1992, Women Power
Note (Sage Publications, Newbury Park, Calif.).
1 Preparation of this Special Issue was supported York University,
in part by the Faculty of Administrative Studies, Faculty of Administrative Studies,
York University. I would like to thank my colleagues 4700 Keele Street,
for continuing to advance my thinking in this M3] lP3 North York,
area. Ontario, 401 Canada
[3]
Sex Discrimination and the
Affirmative Action Remedy:
The Role of Sex Stereotypes Madeline E. Heilman
ABSTRACT. This paper explores the psychological at the very top. Thus, a Fortune magazine review
phenomena of sex stereotypes and their consequences of the proxy statements of the 1000 largest U.S.
for the occurrence of sex discrimination in work industrial and service companies indicated that
settings. Differential conceptions of the attributes of less than one half of 1 % of the highest paid
women and men are shown to extend to women and
officers and directors were women and a subse
men managers, and the lack of fit model is used to
quent review of the annual reports of 255 major
explain how stereotypes about women can detri
corporations revealed that only 5% of upper
mentally affect their career progress. Commonly
management positions were, as of 1990, held by
occurring organizational conditions which facilitate
women (Fierman, 1990). A recent report of a
the use of stereotypes in personnel decision making
Federal panel, the Glass Ceiling Commission,
are identified and, lastly, data are provided demon
based on a review of 1990 census reports, cor
strating the way in which affirmative action programs
and practices can act to promote the stereotyping of roborates these figures; it states that while white
women suggesting, that rather than being a remedy males constitute only 43% of the labor force,
for sex discrimination, such programs might in fact they hold 95% of the senior management jobs
be another contributor to the problem. Conclusions (Holmes, 1995). Why are women so scarce at the
focus on the importance of attending to the role sex top?
stereotypes play in hindering women's career progress
It is proposed here that stereotyped-based sex
when procedures to combat sex discrimination ill discrimination is a major cause, and that current
organizations are designed and implemented.
organizational practices act to support and per
petuate it. Before developing this thesis, however,
it is instructive to explore some commonly
There has been much discussion about when
proposed alternative explanations for this phe
women will finally make it into the highest levels
nomenon.
of American corporations. Although women
Some say that "it is simply a matter of time."
have increasingly become represented in the
Proponents of this point of view argue that
corporate ranks, they are conspicuously absent
women's absence from the top levels of manage
ment is a natural consequence of them not
Madeline E. Heilman is a professor of psychology at New having been in managerial positions long enough
York University where she is the coordinator of the indus for the natural career progression to take hold
I,
trial/organizational psychology program. She spent eight (Forbes, Piercy and Hayes, 1988). This is some
years as a member of the faculty at the Yale School of
times called the pipeline theory. But there is little
Organization and Management. Her areas of specialty
evidence which supports this theory. According
are social and organizational psychology, and she is on
to the Feminist Majority Foundation (1991), a
the editorial boards of the Journal of Applied Psychology,
women's rights advocacy group, if the pipeline
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Pro
explanation were correct, women today should
cesses, and the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science.
comprise at least 15% of those at the top levels
Her research has focused on sex bias in working settings,
the dynamics of stereotyping and the unintended conse of corporations. Others, too, find this explana
quences of priferential selection processes. tion for women's lack of representation at the top
[5]
878 M. E. Heilman
ranks unsatisfactory (Fierman, 1990; Hymnowitz tion that women lack the "drive" to get to the
and Schellhardt, 1986; Salmons, 1987). Research top. In fact, no differences between managerial
on this issue has made evident that while men and women have been found in level of
women's representation in the workforce has motivation (Morrison et aI., 1987; Miner, 1977),
burgeoned, and their numbers in the lower and nor in psychological needs and motives such as
middle ranks of management have swelled, few the need for achievement or need for power
have advanced to the same levels or at the (Harlan and Weiss, 1982), and at least one
same pace as their male counterparts (Dipboye, researcher has concluded that women in man
1987). agement positions actually may be more motivated
Another explanation for the dearth of women to succeed than their male counterparts because
at the top places blame on women themselves. only the most motivated women would have
There long has been assumptions about how continued on a career path fraught with so many
women and men differ with regard to work obstacles (Powell, 1988). And, finally, there is no
related skills and attitudes. And, in most cases, research evidence supportive of the commonly
women are believed to be deficient. In fact, the held idea that women managers are less com
popular literature is filled with self-help tech mitted to their careers because their primary
niques to enable women to overcome the commitment is to the family and home. In
inherent deficits that result from being female. fact, a survey conducted by the American
There are tips about succeeding at corporate Management Association depicts women as
gamesmanship (Harragan, 1977), about strategies compared to men managers as more committed
for "breaking into the boys' club at the top" to their careers, more willing to relocate, and
Oardim and Hennig, 1990), and about improving more likely to make their jobs top priority when
one's communication style, supervising skills, family-work conflicts occur (Hymnowitz and
and long term career perspective (Feuer, 1988). Schellhardt, 1986).
Each of these authors have inherently accepted These research findings indicate that differ
the proposition that it is the weaknesses that ences between men and women managers in
women bring to the workplace which obstruct abilities, attitudes and behavior are more apparent
their advancement, weaknesses which must be than real; most studies of practicing managers
overcome if women are to succeed. demonstrate no systematic differences between
But research evidence does not bear out this them (Powell, 1988; Howard and Bray, 1988).
contention. Social and organizational psycholo In fact, Donnell and Hall (1980) who conducted
gists who have investigated the nature and extent an expansive field study of almost 2000 matched
of sex related differences between women and pairs of men and women managers brought them
men managers have come to a very different con to the conclusion drawn by many others - that
clusion. Many ability differences that typically the absence of women in upper management
have been ascribed to men and women do not cannot be explained away by the idea that
hold up under scientific scrutiny, and the idea women "practice a different brand of manage
that women are crippled by their lower aptitude ment from that practiced by men" (p. 76). Thus,
is unwarranted (e.g., Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974). the argument that women are less equipped in
Moreover, the commonly accepted idea that men skills or temperament to handle the arduous role
as compared to women do a better job in the of a senior manager, and consequently the
leadership role in organizational settings because current underrepresentation of women at the
they are task-focused (focused on getting the upper echelons is fair and equitable, seems highly
work done) rather than interpersonally focused questionable.
(focused on keeping people happy) is contra Despite this, however, beliefs that there are dif
dicted by data from recent literature reviews ferences between men and women which pro
(Dobbins and Platz, 1986; Eagley and Johnson, foundly affect their potential to succeed in the
1990). Additionally, no scientific evidence has management role obstinately persist, justifying
been reported validating the often made assump- the underrepresentation of women and no doubt
[6]
Sex Discrimination and the .!iffirmative Remedy 879
contributing to the problem. Why do such beliefs The descriptions of men and women tend to
endure, even when they fly in the face of reality? differ dramatically, and are assumed to apply to
The answer to this question, and a key factor in nearly all men and women as members of their
understanding the barriers confronting women respective groups. In fact, investigations have
in the corporate world, is the psychological phe revealed that men and women often are depicted
nomenon of sex stereotypes. as polar opposites (Broverman et aI., 1972). Men
are thought to be strong and active, and women
are thought to be weak and passive. Thus,
Sex stereotypes whereas men are described as decisive, indepen
dent, rational, objective and self-confident,
A stereotype is a set of attributes ascribed to a women are described as indecisive, dependent,
group and believed to characterize its individual emotional, non-objective and insecure. Men and
members simply because they belong to that women also are described differently with respect
group. In the case of sex stereotypes, these are to qualities of warmth and expressiveness, with
attributes which are imparted to individual men women rated more favorably; they are viewed to
and women simply by virtue of their sex. be tender, understanding, concerned with others
Stereotyping is at its core a categorization and comfortable with their feelings whereas men
process, and can be a work-saving cognitive are described as just the opposite.
mechanism to simplifY and organize the complex The traits associated with men and women not
world we encounter. And, in many instances it only are different but also are valued differently.
is effective as well as efficient. Knowing that Although each are credited with desirable traits,
rocks are hard and do not melt when submerged it is generally argued that those associated with
in water enables us to act upon our environment men are more highly valued in Western culture
far more effectively than if we had ro establish than are those associated with women. That is,
these attributes every time we happened upon a achievement oriented traits typically ascribed to
rock. The problem is that stereotypes about men have been shown to be more highly valued
groups of people often are inaccurate or they are than those concerning nurturance and affiliation
overgeneralizations which do not apply to the typically ascribed to women. And one would
individual group member who is targeted. In sit expect this differential desirability of stereotypi
uations such as these, stereotypes become the cally masculine and feminine traits to be even
basis for faulty reasoning, leading to biased more accentuated in achievement oriented
feelings and actions, disadvantaging (or advan settings such as the corporate world. Indeed, a
taging) others not because of what they are like number of investigations have demonstrated this
or what they have done but because of the to be so (Darley, 1976; Zellman, 1976).
groups to which they are deemed to belong. But, do traditional stereotypic characteriza
The stereotypes associated with the sexes are tions of women predominate even when women
pervasive and widely shared. If asked to describe are managers? Are the differences in perceptions
a "typical man" or a "typical woman," most of men and women managers similar to the dif
people are able to do so. There also is remark ferences in perceptions of men and women more
able agreement about the traits that characterize generally? If they are not, then invoking sex
them. Whatever the age, religion, social class, stereotypes as an explanation for the inhibition
marital status, educational background, or even of women managers' career progress is in error.
mental health status of the research participants, Recent work in psychology attests to the
researchers have consistently found great con importance of these questions. First, it has
currence in the attributes ascribed to men and been shown that with the addition of job
women (e.g. Broverman et aI., 1972). Even the relevant information stereotyping of women
sex of the respondent makes no difference; men abates (Heilman, 1984; Tosi and Einbender,
and women alike subscribe to sex stereotypic 1985). If the title of manager is considered to
conceptions (Heilman, 1983). provide such job-relevant information, then it,
[7]
880 M. E. Heilman
too, should ameliorate stereotyping. Second, a These data therefore do not challenge but
compelling case has been made that the existence instead fuel the idea that sex stereotypes are key
of a single and all-inclusive blanket stereotype elements in any consideration of why women's
of a social grouping may be faulty (Taylor, career advancement is inhibited. Regardless of
1981). Instead, it has been suggested that these their validity or their relevance when considering
groupings are differentiated into a number of anyone particular woman, sex stereotypes seem
"subtypes," each characterized by a different to be drawn upon, providing the basis for biased
cluster of attributes. Evidence of such subtypes decision making which ultimately can thwart the
of women has been provided (Deaux et aI., 1985; upward progress of women managers. How this
Eagley and Steffo n, 1984; Noseworthy and Lott, occurs, and the conditions under which stereo
1984). However, data collected in a recent study types are apt to wield the most power, will be
demonstrate quite vividly the fact that traditional considered next.
sex stereotypes persist even when women are
managers.
One hundred and fifty-two male managers The lack of fit model
from a range of industries and locations within
the U.S. were asked to rate either men or women To fully explore how sex stereotypes might play
"in general" or men or women "managers" on a role in unfairly obstructing the advancement of
an attribute inventory. Results of statistical tests women up the corporate hierarchy, it is critical
indicated that although work-related characteri to recognize that top management and execu
zations of women were more favorable when tive level corporate jobs are considered to be
they were said to be managers than when they "male" in character. This sex-typing of such
were not, with only one exception (indepen positions has deep roots. Its origin is in the
dence), these characterizations were still signifi traditional view that paid work - especially if it
cantly more negative than those of men managers is important, demanding and lucrative - is a
(all comparisons significant at the p < 0.05 level): man's domain. Women's absence from the work
women managers were said to be less competent, force, their lack of mobility and their failure to
active and potent, emotionally stable, and rational maintain career continuity all have reinforced that
than men managers (see Table I). These findings image. Now, when this no longer is the case, the
attest to the powerful influence of sex stereotypes image of paid employment as a man's activity
on perceptions and, specifically, document the tends to prevail.
fact that traditionally discrepant characterizations Of course not all jobs are considered to be
of men and women persist even when the men male in sex-type. Nurses, librarians, secretaries,
and women are said to be managers. elementary school teachers all are jobs which
TABLE I
Means of work-related attribute ratings
Men in Women in Men Women
general general managers managers
n = 40 n = 40 n = 40 n = 32
Work competence 3.48 2.59 3.87 3.33
Activity /Potency 3.82 2.67 3.98 3.56
Emotional stability 3.45 2.55 3.64 3.11
Independence 3.44 2.71 3.76 3.54
Rationality 3.51 2.38 3.68 3.17
Note: The attributes indicated are scales based on multiple items. All data were collected using five point
adjective scales. The higher the mean, the more the attribute is rated as a characteristic of the stimulus person.
Source: Heilman, Block and Martell (1995)
[8]