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W G OMEN AND ENDER M E IN EDIEVAL UROPE AN E N C Y C L O P E D I A W G OMEN AND ENDER M E IN EDIEVAL UROPE A N E N C Y C L O P E D I A Margaret Schaus Editor New York London Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Routledge Routledge Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group 270 Madison Avenue 2 Park Square New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business Printed in the United States of America on acid‑free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number‑10: 0‑415‑96944‑1 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑0‑415‑96944‑4 (Hardcover) No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Routledge Web site at http://www.routledge‑ny.com CONTENTS Introduction vii Note on TheRoutledge Encyclopedias oftheMiddle Ages xi Editorial Board xiii Contributors xv Alphabetical List ofEntries xxv Thematic List ofEntries xxxiii EntriesA toZ 1 Appendices Appendix I:Calendar ofFemale Saints 865 Appendix II:Some Milestonesin MedievalWomen’sHistory 869 Appendix III:Encyclopedia Cited References 873 Appendix IV:WebResources forMedievalWomenand GenderStudies 875 Index 877 v INTRODUCTION WomenandGenderinMedievalEurope:AnEncyclopediareflectsthedramaticgrowththathastakenplaceinthe studyofmedievalwomenandgendersincethe1970s.Beginningthenwithessaycollectionsandahandfulofpath- breakingjournalarticles,currentresearchnowyieldsafullscholarlypaletterangingfrommonographs,editions oftexts,andresearcharticlestoanthologiesandintroductions.Thisgrowthinscholarshiphasbeenmatchedby an increase in student interest and course offerings. Because much of the research in medieval women’s and genderstudiesispublishedinjournalsandspecializedvolumes,itistime-consumingtoaccess.WomenandGender inMedievalEuropeservesasamuchneededguide,making innovativescholarship availabletoawideraudience by explicatingtopics, providinginterpretation, andselecting authoritative sources that will leadreadersinto the literature and research. Scope Women and Gender in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia addresses many areas of medieval women’s activities, including female patronage of the arts and the church, female mysticism and devotional practices, women’smedicineandunderstandingsofthefemalebody,andwomen’srolesinpoliticsanddiplomacy.Gender issues are also of prime importance, and so masculinity is addressed in a variety of medieval contexts, ranging from chivalric tournaments to medieval views of St. Joseph. Identification and analysis of medieval gender roles provide an important context for understanding women’s roles: a discussion of the norms and expectations for men provides the factual information needed to situate and compare the norms and expectations for women. TheentriesinWomenandGenderinMedievalEuropereflectthedailyrealityofmedievalwomenfromallwalks of life. Such entries move beyond descriptions of individual women to address topics such as ‘‘Asceticism,’’ ‘‘Clothing,’’ ‘‘Procreation and Ideas of Conception,’’ and ‘‘Social Status,’’ providing a comprehensive under- standingof medieval women’s livesand experiences. The individuals profiled in this reference work were chosen either for their historical significance or because theymightrepresentgroupsofpeople,suchasservantsorthedisabled.Inthefirstcategoryaresuchwell-known figuresasGeoffreyChaucer,JoanofArc,ChristinedePizan,andMatildaofTuscany.Inthesecondandsmaller grouparethemysticGertrudofOrtenberg,thesaintlyservantZita,andthenunartistCaterinaVigri.Thistwo- tiered approach demonstrates the range of women’s activities, unlike past scholarship that sometimes took account onlyof noblewomen. WomenandGenderinMedievalEuropetakesEuropeasitsprimaryareafrom450–1500C.E.,roughlythefall of the Roman Empire to the discovery of the Americas. Thus the entries dealing with Islamic topics treat conditions in Iberia or in Europe generally. The entries on Byzantine subjects are an exception geographically, but their inclusion is important both because of connections with Europe, like Theophano’s impact as a Holy Roman empress, andforthecomparisons between thetwoareas in termsofsocial practices. Thisreferenceworktakesaparticularinterestinhistoriography,intermsofthehistoryofthefield,documentarysources,andmethodologicalapproaches.Medievalwomen’shistoryistreatedatlength.Entriescovermany types of documents including household accounts, letters, and sister books (collective biographies of nuns). Groups of records are also included for the church, rural areas, and cities. For methodological approaches the volume gives detailed treatments to feminism and postmodernism as well as covering others approaches important to the study of the Middle Ages such as performance theory and queer theory. The aim is to help users develop a critical understanding ofthe historiography ofmedieval women andgender. vii INTRODUCTION Authors The authors of the entries are scholars and researchers in the field. In many cases the authors who contributed entrieshavepublishedthedefinitivemonographonthesubjectinquestion,bringingtheirknowledgeandanalysis to the discussion. Such command of the material allowed authors to offer discussions that put the issues into perspective and help dispel mistaken assumptions, such as the idea that male practitioners did not give medical caretowomen. How to Use This Book Organization The563entriesinthisvolumearearrangedinaneasilyaccessibleAtoZformat,reflectedinthealphabeticallist of entries. A thematic list of entries has also been provided to assist the reader in easily locating relevant information. Usersmayalso consult thethorough,analytical index. Entry Features Theentriesrangefrom250toover4500wordsinlength.Theyareaccompaniedbyselectivebibliographies,which include both primary and secondary sources for further reading and research. Cross-references at the end of an entry directthereader torelated entries inthevolume. Overview Entries Included are series of entries that together treat broad topics. Country overviews deal with women’s status in a particular region: Burgundian Netherlands, Byzantium, Eastern Europe, England, Flanders, France, Northern, Frankish Lands, Germanic Lands, Iberia, Ireland, Italy, Occitania, Russia, Scandinavia, Scotland, and Wales. Theseentries are represented inthethematic listunder ‘‘Countries, Realms, and Regions.’’ Literature overviews deal with representations of women in the following literatures: German, Hebrew, Iberian, Irish, Italian, Latin, Middle English, Occitan, Old English, Old French, and Old Norse. These entries appearinthe thematiclistunder ‘‘Literature.’’ The‘‘Literature’’categoryalsoincludessurveysoffemalewritersinvariouslanguages(German,Italian,Latin MiddleEnglish,OldFrench,andSpanish)underarticlesbeginning‘‘WomenAuthors:GermanTexts,’’aswellas coverageofbroadliterarytopics,suchas‘‘Ballads,’’‘‘DevotionalLiterature,’’and‘‘Ovid:MedievalReceptionof.’’ For law, there is a series of articles that treat learned and regional legal traditions including ‘‘Roman Law,’’ ‘‘BarbarianLawCodes’’andentriesfollowing‘‘Law’’forEnglish,French,German,Islamic,andJewishpractices inregards towomen andgender. Thematic Coverage In addition to the categories outlined above, the entries in Women and Gender and Medieval Europe address the following themes: . Art, Architecture, and Archaeology: These entries include examinations of representations of women and genderinart,artisticproductionbywomen,andarchitecturalstructuressuchasmonasteriesandthehome. . DocumentarySources:Entriesinthiscategoryprovidecoverageofdocumentationbyandaboutwomenin avariety ofsources includingownership marks onbooks,convent chronicles, and officialrecords. viii INTRODUCTION . EconomyandSociety:Culturalandsocialtraditionsandnormsastheyaffectedwomen,suchascosmetics, guilds, and inheritance, aretreated byentries falling inthis category. . Education and Learning: These entries examine the types of education available to women as well as female literacy. . Family and Kinship: The medieval status of, and attitudes toward, family members, including spouses, children,andtheelderly,isexploredintheseentries.Articlesinthiscategoryalsolookextensivelyatmedieval marriage. . Gender and Sexuality: These entries cover topics including abortion, concubinage, concepts of femininity and masculinity, and virginity, thusprovidingbroad coverageof keygendercontexts. . Historiography: Scholarly methodologies and critical theories are considered in relation to the study of medieval women andgender. . Medicine and Science: These entries explore medieval theory and practice, as well as topics in medieval gynecology. . Music and Dance: The roles medieval women played as participants in and audiences of music and dance areexplored. . Persons:Theseentriesincludebiographiesofqueens,noblewomen,authors,andsaints,aswellasnotable medieval thinkerssuch asChristine de Pizanand TrotaofSalerno. . Politics: The actions of queens, empresses, and other women in authority are discussed in these entries, as aresuch political topicsas theCrusades and diplomacy. . ReligionandTheology:Inadditiontobiographicalsketchesofsaintsandholywomen,theseentriescover groups such as nuns, Beguines, and religious laywomen. They also analyze key religious topics, such as asceticism, thecult ofMary, andwomen’s monasticism. Appendices Appendix I: Calendar of Female Saints lists the days for female saints observed each month. The calendar is intended tosuggestthe varietyandnumber of holywomencelebrated during the liturgical year. AppendixII:SomeMilestonesinMedievalWomen’sHistoryhighlightskeytranslationsandscholarlyworksin thefieldof medieval women’s studies. Appendix III: Encyclopedia Cited References is a list of those works cited most frequently in the individual bibliographies found attheend ofeachentry. Appendix IV: Web Resources for Medieval Women’s and Gender Studies provides readers with a number of websitesthat present valuablescholarship on medieval women. MargaretSchaus Acknowledgments Avolumelikethisgivesnewmeaningtotheterm‘‘groupeffort.’’Contributors,advisors,studentassistants,and publishershaveallworkedunstintingly.Wearegratefultotheauthorsfortheirinterpretations,filledwithinsights andfascinatingexamples.Fromthebeginningofthisprojectwebenefitedfromadviceandarticulateviewpoints generously offered by colleagues, including Judith Bennett, Joan Ferrante, Jo Ann McNamara, Monica Green, and Nancy Partner. Our subject advisors Lisa Bitel, Jane Burns, Amy Hollywood, and Pamela Sheingorn have beeninvaluableindeterminingtopicstocover,persuadingpeopletowrite,andcontributingmajorentriesintheir respectiveareas.StudentassistantsatHaverfordCollegehavesince2003maintaineddatabases,recordedqueries, andgenerallykepttheprojectafloat.OurthanksgotoRobinDean,DavidFask,VeronicaFaust,SarahHendry, and Elizabeth Piastra. At Routledge, Kristen Holt and Marie-Claire Antoine have brought their considerable experiencetotheproject.Wethankalloftheparticipantswhohavehelpedtobuildthisworkwhereinmedieval women’s livescan beknown. MargaretSchaus ThomasIzbicki Susan Mosher Stuard ix