WITH THE INTERNET - Amy Hogan

484 Pages·2009·6.59 MB·English

by  Amy Hogan

UUSSEERRSS’’ MMEETTAAPPHHOORRIICC IINNTTEERRAACCTTIIOONN
WWIITTHH TTHHEE IINNTTEERRNNEETT

AMY LOUISE HOGAN

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
University of Bath
Department of Psychology
March 2008

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TTAABBLLEE OOFF CCOONNTTEENNTTSS

TABLE OF CONTENTS _____________________________________________ ii
LIST OF TABLES __________________________________________________ xi
LIST OF FIGURES ________________________________________________ xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS __________________________________________ xix
ABSTRACT ______________________________________________________ xxi
STRUCTURE OF THESIS _________________________________________ xxii
DEFINITIONS ___________________________________________________ xxvi

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 11.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN TTOO TTHHEE RREESSEEAARRCCHH __________________________________11
1.1 OVERVIEW _____________________________________________________ 2
1.2 THE INTERNET _________________________________________________ 7
1.2.1 The contemporary Internet: 2001-2004 ____________________________ 9
1.2.2 The current Internet: 2005-2009 ________________________________ 11
1.2.3 The future of the Internet ______________________________________ 12
1.3 CONTEXTUALISING THE RESEARCH _____________________________ 13

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 22.. UUSSAABBIILLIITTYY,, MMOODDEELLSS AANNDD MMEETTAAPPHHOORRSS ________________________ 1155
2.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 16
2.2 MODELS IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION __________________ 16
2.3 METAPHOR ___________________________________________________ 18
2.3.1 Defining metaphor ___________________________________________ 18
2.3.2 Visual metaphors ____________________________________________ 19
2.3.3 This thesis' approach to defining metaphor ________________________ 20
2.4 THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR __________________________________ 21
2.4.1 Metaphors enable comprehension _______________________________ 21
2.4.2 Metaphors provide insight _____________________________________ 22
2.4.3 Metaphors facilitate communication _____________________________ 22
2.4.4 Metaphors aid technological comprehension ______________________ 23
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2.5 THE FUNCTION OF METAPHORS IN HCI _______________________ 23

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 33.. CCOOMMMMOONN IINNTTEERRNNEETT MMEETTAAPPHHOORRSS AANNDD TTHHEEIIRR OORRIIGGIINNSS 2255
3.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 26
3.2 POPULAR METAPHORS OF THE INTERNET _______________________ 26
3.2.1 Metaphors shape and are shaped by technologies ___________________ 28
3.3 METAPHORICAL MODELS OF THE INTERNET _____________________ 32
3.4 INTERFACE METAPHORS _______________________________________ 35
3.4.1 Desktop metaphor ___________________________________________ 35
3.4.2 Iconic metaphors ____________________________________________ 37
3.4.3 Document metaphors _________________________________________ 38
3.5 SYSTEM METAPHORS __________________________________________ 38
3.5.1 Spatial metaphors ___________________________________________ 39
3.5.2 Container metaphors _________________________________________ 40
3.5.3 Orientation metaphors ________________________________________ 40
3.5.4 Personification metaphors _____________________________________ 40
3.6 MAPPING THE INTERNET _______________________________________ 40

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 44.. CCUULLTTUURRAALL AANNDD IINNTTEERRFFAACCEE MMEETTAAPPHHOORRSS ______________________ 4444
4.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 45
4.2 CULTURAL METAPHORS _______________________________________ 45
4.3 INTERFACE METAPHORS _______________________________________ 47
4.3.1 Problems with interface metaphors ______________________________ 51
4.4 DESIGNERS' METAPHORS VERSUS USERS' METAPHORS __________ 54
4.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE USER CENTRED DESIGN LITERATURE ______ 57

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 55.. UUSSEERRSS AANNDD TTHHEEIIRR IINNTTEERRNNEETT MMEETTAAPPHHOORRSS ____________________ 5599
5.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 60
5.2 USERS’ METAPHORS OF THE INTERNET __________________________ 60
5.2.1 User variation in Internet metaphors _____________________________ 63
5.3 USERS OF THE INTERNET _______________________________________ 65
5.3.1 Internet self-efficacy _________________________________________ 66
5.3.2 Attitudes __________________________________________________ 68

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5.4 USING THE INTERNET __________________________________________ 69
5.4.1 Communication _____________________________________________ 70
5.4.2 Information gathering ________________________________________ 71
5.4.3 Entertainment and Commerce __________________________________ 71

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 66.. MMEETTHHOODDOOLLOOGGIICCAALL AANNDD EEPPIISSTTEEMMOOLLOOGGIICCAALL IISSSSUUEESS ____ 7733
6.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 74
6.2 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN HCI ________________________ 74
6.3 BEYOND USABILITY TESTING __________________________________ 75
6.4 MEASURING SUBJECTIVTY _____________________________________ 77
6.4.1 Using Q Methodology to measure subjective understanding __________ 78
6.4.2 Q as a mixed method _________________________________________ 80

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 77.. RREESSEEAARRCCHH GGOOAALLSS AANNDD RRAATTIIOONNAALLEE ______________________________ 8822
7.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 83
7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND GOALS _____________________________ 83
7.2.1 Users’ metaphors of the Internet ________________________________ 84
7.2.2 Textual and visual metaphors __________________________________ 86
7.2.3 User variation in metaphor use _________________________________ 88

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 88.. QQ SSOORRTT:: MMEETTHHOODDOOLLOOGGYY ______________________________________________ 9911
8.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 92
8.2 CONDUCTING A Q STUDY ______________________________________ 92
8.2.1 Concourse generation ________________________________________ 93
8.2.2 Q Sample selection __________________________________________ 93
8.2.2.1 Structured Q samples ____________________________________ 94
8.2.2.2 Unstructured Q samples __________________________________ 94
8.2.2.3 Q samples, representativeness and emergent meaning __________ 95
8.2.2.4 Q sample size __________________________________________ 96
8.2.2.5 Preparing the Q sample __________________________________ 96
8.2.3 P Set selection ______________________________________________ 98
8.2.4 Q Sorting procedure _________________________________________ 98
8.2.4.1 Post Q sort ____________________________________________ 99
8.2.5 Factor Analysis ____________________________________________ 100
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8.2.5.1 Extraction and rotation of factors _________________________ 100
8.2.5.2 Factor loadings _______________________________________ 101
8.2.6 Interpretation ______________________________________________ 102
8.2.6.1 Bipolar loadings _______________________________________ 102
8.2.6.2 Distinguishing and consensus items _______________________ 103
8.2.6.3 Interpretation and context _______________________________ 103
8.2.6.4 Synthesising Q and R data _______________________________ 104
8.3 ONLINE Q SORTING ___________________________________________ 104

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 99.. QQ SSTTUUDDYY PPRREEPPAARRAATTIIOONN:: PPIILLOOTT SSTTUUDDIIEESS ____________________ 110077
9.1 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________ 108
9.2 PILOT STUDIES _______________________________________________ 108
9.3 PILOT 1: CONCOURSE GENERATION ____________________________ 109
9.3.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 109
9.3.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 109
9.3.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 109
9.3.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 111
9.3.4.1 Internet vs. World Wide Web _____________________________ 112
9.3.4.2 Concourse generation __________________________________ 112
9.4 PILOT 2: Q SAMPLE SELECTION ________________________________ 120
9.4.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 121
9.4.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 121
9.4.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 121
9.4.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 123
9.4.4.1 Number of Q sample items _______________________________ 123
9.4.4.1 Combining Q sort mediums ______________________________ 123
9.5 PILOT 3: Q SAMPLE REFINEMENT ______________________________ 124
9.5.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 124
9.5.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 125
9.5.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 125
9.5.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 128
9.5.4.1 Image Q sample selection ________________________________ 128
9.5.4.2 Text Q sample selection _________________________________ 129
9.5.4.3 Development of online Q sorting interface __________________ 130
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9.5.4.3.1 FEATURES OF THE ONLINE INTERFACE ___________________ 130
9.5.4.4 Testing the Characteristics Profile Questionnaire _____________ 133
9.5.4.4.1 ORIGINAL QUESTIONNAIRE SETUP ______________________ 133
9.5.4.4.2 MODIFICATIONS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE _________________ 136

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1100.. MMEETTHHOODD AANNDD PPRROOCCEEDDUURREE _ _________________________________________ 113377
10.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 138
10.2 P SET SELECTION ____________________________________________ 138
10.2.1 Website indexing (self-selection) _____________________________ 139
10.2.2 Newsgroup postings _______________________________________ 140
10.2.3 Chat room postings ________________________________________ 142
10.2.4 Emailing to selected and random bulk-emailing lists ______________ 144
10.2.5 Cohort group sample _______________________________________ 146
10.3 Q SORTING PROCEDURE ______________________________________ 146
10.3.1 Q Sort task _______________________________________________ 147
10.3.2 Characteristic Profile Questionnaire ___________________________ 151
10.4 RESPONSE RATE _____________________________________________ 153
10.5 Q FACTOR ANALYSIS ________________________________________ 155
10.5.1 Factor extraction __________________________________________ 155
10.5.2 Factor rotation ___________________________________________ 155
10.5.3 Factor loadings ___________________________________________ 156
10.5.3.1 Utilising the statistical criterion __________________________ 156
10.6 INTERPRETATION ___________________________________________ 157

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1111.. EENNVVIISSIIOONNIINNGG TTHHEE IINNTTEERRNNEETT:: IIMMAAGGEE QQ SSOORRTT RREESSUULLTTSS
______________________________________________________ 158
11.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 159
11.2. PARTICIPANTS ______________________________________________ 159
11.2.1 Descriptive statistics: Summary of CPQ patterns ________________ 159
11.3 Q FACTOR ANALYSIS ________________________________________ 160
11.3.1 Super-order Factor Analysis _________________________________ 160
11.4 INTERPRETATION ___________________________________________ 162
11.4.1 Super-factor I: Chaotic Communication Networks and Functional Static
Communication ________________________________________________ 162
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11.4.1.1 One factor; Two perspectives ____________________________ 164
11.4.1.1.1 CHAOTIC COMMUNICATION NETWORKS ________________ 166
11.4.1.1.2 FUNCTIONAL CONCRETISED COMMUNICATION __________ 170
11.4.1.2 Communalities and specificities __________________________ 175
11.4.1.3 Summary of Super-factor I ______________________________ 176
11.4.2 Super-factor II: Contained Organisation ________________________ 177
11.4.2.1 Summary of Super-factor II _____________________________ 185
11.4.3 Communalities and specificities ______________________________ 185
11.5 CONCLUSIONS ______________________________________________ 187

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1122.. DDEESSCCRRIIBBIINNGG TTHHEE IINNTTEERRNNEETT:: TTEEXXTT QQ SSOORRTT RREESSUULLTTSS 119900
12.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 191
12.2. PARTICIPANTS ______________________________________________ 191
12.2.1 Descriptive statistics: Summary of CPQ patterns ________________ 191
12.3 Q FACTOR ANALYSIS ________________________________________ 192
12.3.1 Super-Order Factor Analysis _________________________________ 192
12.4 INTERPRETATION ___________________________________________ 193
12.4.1 Super-factor I: Triune Networks ______________________________ 194
12.4.1.1 Summary of Super-factor I ______________________________ 202
12.4.2 Super-factor II: Dynamic Complexity _________________________ 202
12.4.2.1 Summary of Super-factor II _____________________________ 207
12.4.3 Communalities and specificities ______________________________ 207
12.5. CONCLUSIONS ______________________________________________ 208

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1133.. IINNTTEEGGRRAATTIINNGG TTHHEE IINNTTEERRNNEETT:: DDUUAALL PPAARRTTIICCIIPPAANNTTSS’’ QQ
SSOORRTT RREESSUULLTTSS ____________________________________________________________________________________ 221111
13.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 212
13.2. PARTICIPANTS ______________________________________________ 212
13.2.1 Descriptive statistics: Summary of CPQ patterns ________________ 212
13.3 Q FACTOR ANALYSIS - IMAGES _______________________________ 213
13.3.1 Interpreting the Image factors ________________________________ 214
13.3.1.1 Factor 1: Centralised Nodal Structures ____________________ 215
13.3.1.1.1 SUMMARY OF IMAGE FACTOR 1 _______________________ 224
13.3.1.2 Factor 2: Dynamic Abstract Clusters ______________________ 224
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13.3.1.2.1 SUMMARY OF IMAGE FACTOR 2 _______________________ 231
13.3.1.3 Communalities and specificities __________________________ 232
13.3.2 Summary of Image factors __________________________________ 233
13.4 Q FACTOR ANALYSIS - TEXT __________________________________ 234
13.4.1 Interpreting the Text factors _________________________________ 235
13.4.1.1 Factor 1: Chaotic Interlinking ___________________________ 235
13.4.1.1.1 SUMMARY OF TEXT FACTOR 1 ________________________ 240
13.4.1.2 Factor 2: Linkage Layers ______________________________ 241
13.4.1.2.1 SUMMARY OF TEXT FACTOR 2 ________________________ 247
13.4.1.3 Communalities and specificities __________________________ 247
13.4.2 Summary of Text factors ____________________________________ 249
13.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN IMAGE AND TEXT FACTORS __________ 249
13.6 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALL EMERGENT FACTORS ______ 254
13.6.1 Third-Order Analysis - Images _______________________________ 254
13.6.2 Third-Order Analysis - Text _________________________________ 255
13.6.3 Third-Order Analysis – Dual Participants _______________________ 256
13.6.4 Two dominant metaphors: Chaos vs. Order _____________________ 258
13.6.5 Second dimension: Structure vs. Process _______________________ 259

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1144.. DDIISSCCUUSSSSIIOONN:: IIMMPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS AANNDD AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS ______ 226611
14.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 262
14.2 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT RESEARCH FINDINGS ______________ 262
14.3 RESEARCH QUESTION 1 ______________________________________ 263
14.3.1 Consistent metaphors over time ______________________________ 265
14.3.2 The disappearance of dominant metaphors ______________________ 266
14.3.3 The appearance of new metaphors ____________________________ 267
14.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 1A-C ___________________________________ 268
14.4.1 Internet users’ visual metaphors ______________________________ 268
14.4.1.1 Chaotic Communication Networks ________________________ 269
14.4.1.2 Functional Concretised Communication ___________________ 269
14.4.1.3 Contained Organisation _______________________________ 270
14.4.1.4 Summary of visual metaphors ___________________________ 270
14.4.2 Internet users’ textual metaphors ______________________________ 270
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14.4.2. 1 Triune Networks _____________________________________ 271
14.4.2.2 Dynamic Complexity __________________________________ 271
14.4.2.3 Summary of textual metaphors ___________________________ 271
14.4.3 The relationship between textual and visual metaphors ____________ 272
14.4.3.1 Dual – Image Factos __________________________________ 272
14.4.3.2 Dual – Text Factors ___________________________________ 273
14.4.3.3 The relationship between Dual Factors ____________________ 273
14.5 TWO DOMINANT METAPHORS OF THE INTERNET _______________ 274
14.6 RESEARCH QUESTION 2 ______________________________________ 275
14.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR METAPHOR THEORY ______________________ 278
14.8 IMPLICATIONS FOR HCI RESEARCH ___________________________ 280
14.9 APPLICATIONS FOR INTERFACE DESIGN _______________________ 282
14.10 EVALUATION OF THE METHODOLOGY _______________________ 284
14.10.1 Evaluation of Q Methodology _______________________________ 289
14.10.2 Evaluation of online Q sorting ______________________________ 292
14.11 FUTURE RESEARCH _________________________________________ 293
14.12 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ___________________________________ 297

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS ______________________________________________________________________________________ 330000
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS ________________________________________________________________________________________ 333322
APPENDIX 1.1 DEFINITIONS OF THE INTERNET __________________________ 333
APPENDIX 1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNET ______________________ 335
APPENDIX 2.1 METAPHOR VERSUS OTHER TROPES _______________________ 343
APPENDIX 9.1 IMAGE CONCOURSE __________________________________ 345
APPENDIX 9.2 TEXT CONCOURSE ___________________________________ 360
APPENDIX 9.3 CPQ OMISSIONS _____________________________________ 362
APPENDIX 10.1 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ____________________________ 363
APPENDIX 10.2 NEWSGROUP POSTING MESSAGE ________________________ 365
APPENDIX 10.3 EXAMPLE EMAIL MESSAGES ___________________________ 366
APPENDIX 10.4 CHARACTERISTICS PROFILE QUESTIONNAIRE ______________ 370
APPENDIX 10.5 MODIFICATIONS TO THE RESEARCH WEBSITE ______________ 380
APPENDIX 10.6 ORDER ANALYSES ___________________________________ 383
APPENDIX 11.1 IMAGE Q SORTERS: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ______________ 402
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APPENDIX 11.2 IMAGE SUPER-FACTOR ANALYSES ______________________ 407
APPENDIX 11.3 IMAGE SUPER-FACTOR Z SCORE COMPARISON _____________ 413
APPENDIX 11.4 GEOGRAPHIC LOCATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS _______________ 414
APPENDIX 12.1 TEXT Q SORTERS: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS _______________ 419
APPENDIX 12.2 TEXT SUPER-FACTOR ANALYSES _______________________ 423
APPENDIX 12.3 TEXT SUPER-FACTOR Z SCORE COMPARISON ______________ 429
APPENDIX 12.4A TEXT Q SORT FACTOR ARRAY, FACTOR I _________________ 430
APPENDIX 12.4B TEXT Q SORT FACTOR ARRAY, FACTOR II ________________ 433
APPENDIX 13.1 DUAL Q SORTERS: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ______________ 436
APPENDIX 13.2 DUAL PARTICIPANTS’ IMAGE FACTOR Z SCORE COMPARISON __ 441
APPENDIX 13.3 DUAL PARTICIPANTS’ TEXT FACTOR Z SCORE COMPARISON ___ 442
APPENDIX 13.4A DUAL PARTICIPANTS’ TEXT Q SORT ARRAY, FACTOR 1 ______ 443
APPENDIX 13.4B DUAL PARTICIPANTS’ TEXT Q SORT ARRAY, FACTOR 2 ______ 446
APPENDIX 13.5 CHARACTERISTIC PATTERNS ACROSS METAPHOR CLUSTERS __ 449
APPENDIX 15 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS ________________________ 451

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