Wind energy-- the facts: a guide to the technology, economics and future of wind power

593 Pages·2009·47.76 MB·English

by  European Wind Energy Association.

Wind power is often held up as the most
accessible and cost-effective route to
reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and
W
improving our energy independence, yet
knowledge of what it offers is often clouded
by myths and misunderstandings, which can i
n
hamper its adoption.
d
This new book, the result of an ambitious

EWEA is the voice of the wind industry, actively project coordinated by the European Wind
E
promoting the utilisation of wind power in Europe Energy Association, aims to present the facts
and worldwide. It now has over 500 members about wind energy. It includes six sections n
from 50 countries including manufacturers with a discussing:
90 per cent share of the world wind power market, e
• technology;
plus component suppliers, research institutes,
r
national wind and renewable associations, • grid integration;
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developers, electricity providers, finance and • economics of wind;
insurance companies and consultants. This y
• industry and markets;
combined strength makes EWEA the world’s

largest and most powerful wind energy network. • environmental impacts; –
• scenarios and targets.
The EWEA Secretariat is located in Brussels, in T
the Renewable Energy House. The Secretariat Contributions are drawn from nine leading h
coordinates European policy, communications, research bodies across Europe, and the
research, and analysis. It manages various e
material is global in its scope. It is therefore
European projects, hosts events and supports
an essential resource and reference for those
the needs of its members.
whose work or study demands an in-depth F
examination of the subject, and for anyone
Tel. [phone] – Fax: [phone] a
who wants detailed, accurate and up-to-date
E-mail: [email protected] – Web: www.ewea.org
information on this key energy source. c
t
s
Wind Energy –
Supported by the Intelligent Energy Europe
Energy / environment programme, European Commission
The Facts
publishing for a sustainable future
www.earthscan.co.uk
A guide to the technology, economics
Earthscan strives to minimise its impact on the environment
and future of wind power
Wind Energy –
The Facts
A guide to the technology, economics
and future of wind power
European Wind Energy Association (EWEA)
publishing for a sustainable future
London (cid:129) Sterling, VA
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First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2009
Copyright © European Wind Energy Association 2009
All rights reserved
ISBN: 978-1-84407-710-6
As the wind energy sector is highly dynamic and in continual development, the data and fi gures in this volume, correct in
October 2008, may become slightly out-of-date as of 2009. All the most recent statistics and information can be found on the
Wind Energy – The Facts website: www.windfacts.eu.
The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily refl ect the opinion of the
European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained
therein.
Typeset by Techset Composition Ltd
Index compiled by Indexing Specialists (UK) Ltd
Cover design by Susanne Harris
Printed in Malta by Gutenberg Press
For a full list of publications please contact:
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Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wind energy – the facts : a guide to the technology, economics and future of wind power / European Wind Energy Association.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84407-710-6 (hardback)
1. Wind power industry–European Union countries. 2. Wind power–European Union countries. I. European Wind Energy
Association.
HD9502.5.W553W57 2009
333.9'2–dc22
2008046551
At Earthscan we strive to minimise our environmental impacts and carbon footprint through reducing waste, recycling and
offsetting our CO emissions, including those created through publication of this book. For more details of our environmental
2
policy, see www.earthscan.co.uk.
The paper used for this book is FSC certifi ed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii
Acknowledgements xix
Foreword xxi
EWEA Foreword xxiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Part I: Technology 4
Wind Resource Estimation 4
Wind Turbine Technology 4
Wind Farm Design 6
Offshore Wind Power 6
Small Wind Turbines 7
Research and Development 7
Part II: Grid Integration 8
Design and Operation of Power Systems 8
Grid Infrastructure Upgrade 9
Grid Connection Requirements 10
Wind Power’s Contribution to System Adequacy 11
Market Design 11
Economics of Wind Power Integration 11
Part III: The Economics of Wind Power 13
Onshore Wind Power 13
Offshore Development 14
Finance 15
Prices and Support Mechanisms 15
Impact of Wind Power on Spot Power Prices 16
Wind Power Compared to Conventional Power 16
Employment 18
Part IV: Industry and Markets 19
The EU Energy Mix 19
Wind Energy in the European Power Market 19
The Current Status of the EU Wind Energy Market 20
European Wind Industry: Players and Investment Trends 21
Key Player Positioning 23
Planned Future Investment 23
The Status of the Global Wind Energy Markets 23
US and Chinese Markets Continue to Boom 24
Administrative and Grid Access Barriers 24
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IV WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part V: Environment 24
Environmental Benefi ts 24
Environmental Impacts 24
Policy Measures to Combat Climate Change 25
Externalities and Wind Compared to Other Technologies 25
Social Acceptance of Wind Energy and Wind Farms 26
Part VI: Scenarios and Targets 26
PART I: TECHNOLOGY 29
Chapter I.1: Introduction 31
Chapter I.2: Wind Resource Estimation 32
Introduction 32
Regional Wind Resources 32
On-Site Measurement 32
Computer Modelling 33
Constraints 33
Wind Atlases 33
Onshore 33
Offshore 35
Local Wind Resource Assessment and Energy Analysis 35
The Importance of the Wind Resource 36
Best Practice for Accurate Wind Speed Measurements 38
The Annual Variability of Wind Speed 41
Analytical Methods for the Prediction of the Long-Term Wind Regime at a Site 46
The Prediction of the Energy Production of a Wind Farm 48
Defi nition of Uncertainty in the Predicted Energy Production 55
Forecasting 56
Overview of the Method 57
Examples of Time Series Power Prediction Results 57
Example Statistical Accuracy of Forecasts 59
Portfolio Effects 59
Conclusions 60
Future Developments 61
Chapter I.3: Wind Turbine Technology 63
Evolution of Commercial Wind Turbine Technology 63
The Technical Challenge of a Unique Technology 63
The Development of Commercial Technology 64
Design Styles 65
Design Drivers for Modern Technology 70
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WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS V
Architecture of a Modern Wind Turbine 70
Growth of Wind Turbine Size 72
Large Commercial Wind Turbines 73
Technology Trends 78
Larger Diameters 78
Tip Speed Trends 79
Pitch Versus Stall 80
Speed Variation 80
Drive Train Trends 82
Hub Height 83
Rotor and Nacelle Mass 83
Transport and Installation 84
Current Developments 86
Rotor Blade Development 86
Alternative Drive Train Confi gurations 87
Controller Capabilities 90
Network Operator Requirements 91
Testing, Standardisation and Certifi cation 91
Future Innovations 91
New System Concepts 91
Airborne Turbines 92
Maglev 93
Chapter I.4: Wind Farm Design 94
Introduction 94
Factors Affecting Turbine Location 94
Optimisation of Energy Production 95
Visual Infl uence 95
Noise 96
Turbine Loads 98
Infrastructure 100
Civil Works 101
Electrical Works 102
SCADA and Instruments 103
Construction Issues 104
Costs 105
Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance 105
Chapter I.5: Offshore 107
Introduction 107
Wind Resource Assessment Offshore 107
Fundamentals 107
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VI WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS
Measurement Offshore 108
Wind Analysis Offshore 108
Energy Prediction 109
Wind Turbine Technology for Offshore Locations 109
Availability, Reliability and Access 109
Lightning Risk Offshore 113
Maintenance Strategy – Reliability Versus Maintenance Provision 113
Wind Farm Design Offshore 113
Site Selection 113
Wind Turbine Selection 113
Layout 114
Offshore Support Structures 115
Electrical System 117
Installation 119
Future Trends for Offshore Wind 120
General 120
Wind Turbines 120
Wind Turbine Support Structures 121
Modelling Tools 121
Electrical Infrastructure 121
Assembly and Installation 122
Operations and Maintenance 122
Floating Systems 122
Chapter I.6: Small Wind Turbines 125
Introduction 125
Markets and Applications for SWTs 126
Evolution of Commercial SWT Technology 127
Isolated Applications 127
Grid-Connected Applications 128
Market Development 128
Isolated Systems 128
Grid-Connected Systems 129
Technology Trends and Recent Developments 130
Technology Status 131
Rotor 132
Claimed Effi ciency 132
Cost Analysis 134
Future Trends 136
Blade and Rotor Design 136
Generator 137
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WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS VII
Manufacturing Specialisations 137
Concentration of Manufacturers 137
Off-Grid 137
Grid-Connected 137
Understanding of Wind Resource in Areas Where SWT are Installed 137
Concluding Remarks and Future R&D Needs 137
Chapter I.7: Research and Development 139
Introduction 139
Added Value of R&D 139
Priority R&D Areas in Wind Energy 139
Wind Conditions 139
Wind Turbine Technology 140
Wind Energy Integration 141
Offshore Deployment and Operations 141
Market Deployment Strategy 142
Enabling Market Deployment 142
Cost Reduction 143
Adapting Policies 143
Optimising Administrative Procedures 144
Integrating Wind Power into the Natural Environment 144
Ensuring Public Support 144
R&D Funding for Wind Energy 144
Support at EC Level 145
Support for Wind R&D at Member State Level 148
Current Effort from the Private Sector 149
Conclusion 150
Part I Notes 151
PART II: GRID INTEGRATION 153
Chapter II.1: Setting the Scene 155
Wind Energy Penetration and Integration 155
Wind Energy Penetration 155
Wind Power Capacity Penetration 155
Maximum Share of Wind Power 155
European Policy Framework Relevant for Wind Power Integration 156
Renewable Energy Directive 156
Internal Electricity Market Legislation 157
The TEN-E Programme 157
Brief Outline of the Main Integration Issues 157
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VIII WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter II.2: Wind Power Variability and Impacts on Power Systems 158
Understanding Variable Output Characteristics of Wind Power: Variability and Predictability 158
Wind Power: A Variable Output Source Embedded in a Variable Electricity System 158
Short-Term Variability 159
Long-Term Variability 160
Effects of Aggregation and Geographical Dispersion 161
Load Duration Curve 162
The Need for Interconnection 164
Variability Versus Predictability of Wind Power Production 164
Impacts of Wind Power on Power Systems 165
Short- and Long-Term Impacts 165
Impacts in the System: Local and System-Wide 165
Chapter II.3: Design and Operation of European Power Systems with Large Amounts
of Wind Power 167
Balancing Demand, Conventional Generation and Wind Power 167
Effect of Wind Power on Scheduling of Reserves 167
Additional Balancing Capacities and Balancing Costs: Overall Results from
System Studies 168
System Operation Aspects 169
Transmission Level 169
Distribution Level 169
Wind Power Cluster Management 169
Options for Increasing Power System Flexibility 170
Chapter II.4: Grid Infrastructure Upgrade for Large-Scale Integration 173
European Transmission and Distribution Networks 173
Transmission Networks 173
Distribution Networks 173
Network Planning for Wind Power: Benefi ts of and Options for Increasing
Transmission Capacity 174
The Need for Improved Networks 174
Improving Networks for Integrating Wind Power 175
Ensuring Adequate Transmission Capacity and Access for Wind Power 176
Integrating Wind Power in Distribution Networks 177
Transnational Offshore Grids 177
The Case for an Offshore Grid 177
Technical Solutions for the Offshore Grid 179
Coordinated Network Planning at the European Level 180
Chapter II.5: Grid Connection Requirements 181
Regulatory and Legal Background 181
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WIND ENERGY - THE FACTS - TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
Wind Power Plant Capabilities 181
Grid Codes and Essential Requirements for Wind Power Plants 182
Tolerance 182
Reactive Power Control 183
Active Power Control 183
Protective Devices 184
Power Quality 184
Future Developments 185
Harmonisation of Grid Codes 185
Chapter II.6: Wind Power’s Contribution to System Adequacy 186
Security of Supply and System Adequacy 186
Capacity Credit of Wind Power 188
Capacity Credit is the Measure for Firm Wind Power 188
Capacity Credit Values of Wind Power 188
Chapter II.7: Economic Aspects: Integration Costs and Benefi ts 190
Additional Balancing and Network Costs 190
Additional Balancing Costs 190
Additional Network Costs 191
Allocating Grid Infrastructure Costs 192
Future System Cost Developments 193
Concluding Remarks 195
Part II Notes 196
PART III: THE ECONOMICS OF WIND POWER 197
Part III Introduction 199
Chapter III.1: Cost of On-Land Wind Power 200
Cost and Investment Structures 200
Investment Costs 200
Trends Infl uencing the Costs of Wind Power 201
Operation and Maintenance Costs of Wind-Generated Power 204
The Cost of Energy Generated by Wind Power 207
Development of the Cost of Wind-Generated Power 208
Future Evolution of the Costs of Wind-Generated Power 209
Chapter III.2: Offshore Developments 212
Development and Investment Costs of Offshore Wind Power 212
The Cost of Energy Generated by Offshore Wind Power 217
Development of the Cost of Offshore Wind Power up to 2015 218
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