Wind energy : renewable energy and the environment

327 Pages·2019·18.02 MB·English

by  Nelson

Wind Energy
Renewable Energy and the Environment
Taylor & Francis Series in Energy and the
Environment
Series Editor
Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, USA
Energy Resources:
Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts
Kenneth J. Skipka and Louis Theodore
Geothermal Energy:
Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition
William E. Glassley
Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy
Frank R. Spellman
Introduction to Renewable Energy, Second Edition
Vaughn C. Nelson and Kenneth L. Starcher
Introduction to Bioenergy
Vaughn C. Nelson and Kenneth R. Starcher
Hydroelectric Energy:
Renewable Energy and the Environment
Bikash Pandey and Ajoy Karki
Geologic Fundamentals of Geothermal Energy
David R. Boden
Solar Radiation:
Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications
Daryl R. Myers
Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements
Frank Vignola, Joseph Michalsky, and Thomas Stoffel
Forest-Based Biomass Energy:
Concepts and Applications
Frank Spellman
Textbook of Environmental Biotechnology
Pramod Kumar, Vipin Kumar, and Pravin Kumar Sachan
Wind Energy:
Renewable Energy and the Environment, Third Edition
Vaughn Nelson and Kenneth Starcher
For more information about this series, please visit:
https://www.crcpress.com/Energy-and-the-Environment/book-series/CRCENERENVI
Wind Energy
Renewable Energy and the Environment
Third Edition
Vaughn Nelson and Kenneth Starcher
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-61534-2 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the
validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let
us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or
utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written
permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users.
For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been
arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nelson, Vaughn, author. | Starcher, Kenneth, author.
Title: Wind energy : renewable energy and the environment / Vaughn Nelson and
Kenneth Starcher.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title,
part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis
Group, the academic division of T&F Informa, plc, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018027424 | ISBN 9781138615342 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Wind power. | Wind power plants.
Classification: LCC TJ820 .N44 2018 | DDC 621.31/2136--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018027424
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments ..........................................................................................................................xiii
Authors .............................................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
1.1 History ...............................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Dutch Windmills ..................................................................................1
1.1.2 Farm Windmills ...................................................................................2
1.1.3 Wind Chargers .....................................................................................4
1.1.4 Generation of Electricity for Utilities ...................................................6
1.2 Wind Farms .....................................................................................................11
1.3 Small Systems .................................................................................................13
1.4 Distributed Wind .............................................................................................13
Links ...........................................................................................................................14
References ..................................................................................................................14
Chapter 2 Energy ........................................................................................................................15
2.1 G eneral ............................................................................................................15
2.1.1 Renewable Energy ..............................................................................18
2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy .......................18
2.1.3 Economics ..........................................................................................19
2.2 D efinitions of Energy and Power .....................................................................20
2.3 F undamentals Concerning Energy ..................................................................21
2.4 E nergy Dilemma in Light of the Laws of Thermodynamics ..........................22
2.4.1 Conservation .......................................................................................22
2.4.2 Efficiency ............................................................................................22
2.5 Exponential Growth ........................................................................................24
2.6 U se of Fossil Fuels ...........................................................................................26
2.6.1 Petroleum............................................................................................27
2.6.2 Natural Gas ........................................................................................29
2.6.3 Coal ....................................................................................................30
2.7 Nuclear .............................................................................................................31
2.8 Mathematics of Exponential Growth ..............................................................32
2.8.1 Doubling Time ...................................................................................33
2.8.2 Resource Consumption ......................................................................33
2.9 Lifetime of a Finite Resource ..........................................................................33
2.10 Climate Change ...............................................................................................35
2.10.1 Climate Change-A ..............................................................................36
2.10.2 Greenhouse Effect ..............................................................................37
2.10.3 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide .............................................................38
2.10.4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ....................................39
2.10.5 Policy ..................................................................................................40
2.10.6 Information and Comments ...............................................................40
2.10.7 Geoengineering ..................................................................................42
v
vi Contents
2.11 Summary .........................................................................................................42
General .......................................................................................................................44
Questions/Activities ...................................................................................................44
Problems .....................................................................................................................44
Links ...........................................................................................................................46
References ..................................................................................................................46
Chapter 3 Wind Characteristics ..................................................................................................49
3.1 Global Circulation ...........................................................................................49
3.2 Extractable Limits of Wind Power ..................................................................49
3.3 Wind Power .....................................................................................................51
3.4 Wind Shear ......................................................................................................53
3.5 Wind Direction ................................................................................................57
3.6 Wind Power Potential ......................................................................................58
3.7 Turbulence .......................................................................................................59
3.8 Wind Speed Histograms ..................................................................................60
3.9 Duration Curve ................................................................................................61
3.10 Variations in Wind Power Potential ................................................................62
3.11 Wind Speed Distributions ...............................................................................63
3.12 General Comments ..........................................................................................65
Questions/Activities ...................................................................................................65
Problems .....................................................................................................................65
Links ...........................................................................................................................67
References ..................................................................................................................67
Chapter 4 Wind Resource Assessment .......................................................................................69
4.1 United States ....................................................................................................70
4.2 European Union ...............................................................................................73
4.3 Other Countries ...............................................................................................74
4.4 Ocean Winds ...................................................................................................74
4.4.1 United States ......................................................................................76
4.4.2 World ..................................................................................................77
4.5 Instrumentation ...............................................................................................77
4.5.1 Cup and Propeller Anemometers .......................................................80
4.5.2 Wind Direction ...................................................................................82
4.5.3 Instrument Characteristics .................................................................82
4.5.4 Measurement ......................................................................................82
4.5.5 Vegetation Indicators ..........................................................................83
4.6 Data Loggers ...................................................................................................85
4.7 Wind Measurement for Small Wind Turbines .................................................86
Problems .....................................................................................................................87
References ..................................................................................................................88
Chapter 5 Wind Turbines ............................................................................................................91
5.1 Drag Devices ...................................................................................................91
5.2 Lift Devices .....................................................................................................91
5.3 Orientation of Rotor Axis ................................................................................92
5.4 System Description ..........................................................................................95
Contents vii
5.5 Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................96
5.6 Control .............................................................................................................99
5.6.1 Normal Operation ............................................................................101
5.6.2 Faults ................................................................................................101
5.7 Energy Production .........................................................................................102
5.7.1 Generator Size ..................................................................................102
5.7.2 Rotor Area and Wind Map ...............................................................103
5.7.3 Manufacturer’s Curve .......................................................................103
5.8 Calculated Annual Energy ............................................................................103
5.9 Innovative Wind Power Systems ...................................................................105
5.10 Applications ...................................................................................................112
5.10.1 Electrical Energy ..............................................................................113
5.10.2 Mechanical Energy ..........................................................................113
5.10.3 Thermal Energy ...............................................................................113
5.10.4 Wind Hybrid Systems.......................................................................114
5.11 Summary .......................................................................................................114
Problems ...................................................................................................................114
Links .........................................................................................................................115
References ................................................................................................................115
Chapter 6 Design of Wind Turbines .........................................................................................117
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................117
6.2 Aerodynamics ................................................................................................117
6.3 Mathematical Terms ......................................................................................118
6.4 Drag Device ...................................................................................................119
6.5 Lift Device .....................................................................................................120
6.5.1 Maximum Theoretical Power ...........................................................123
6.5.2 Rotation ............................................................................................123
6.6 Aerodynamic Performance Prediction ..........................................................124
6.7 Measured Power and Power Coefficient ........................................................130
6.8 Construction ..................................................................................................132
6.8.1 Blades ...............................................................................................132
6.8.2 Other Components of System ...........................................................137
6.9 E volution ........................................................................................................140
6.10 S mall Wind Turbines .....................................................................................141
Problems ...................................................................................................................143
References ................................................................................................................145
Chapter 7 Electrical Issues ........................................................................................................147
7.1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................147
7.1.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction ...................................150
7.1.2 Phase Angle and Power Factor .........................................................150
7.2 Generators .....................................................................................................152
7.2.1 Induction Generator, Constant rpm Operation .................................153
7.2.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator, Variable rpm Operation ..............156
7.2.3 Direct-Drive Generator, Variable rpm Operation ............................156
7.2.4 Permanent Magnet Alternator, Variable rpm Operation ..................156
7.2.5 Generator Comparisons ....................................................................157
7.2.6 Generator Examples .........................................................................157
viii Contents
7.3 Power Quality ................................................................................................158
7.4 Electronics .....................................................................................................160
7.4.1 Controllers ........................................................................................160
7.4.2 Power Electronics .............................................................................162
7.4.3 Inverters ............................................................................................162
7.5 Lightning .......................................................................................................163
7.6 R esistance Dump Load ..................................................................................163
Problems ...................................................................................................................164
Links .........................................................................................................................164
References ................................................................................................................165
Chapter 8 Performance .............................................................................................................167
8.1 M easures of Performance ..............................................................................167
8.2 H istorical Wind Statistics ..............................................................................169
8.3 W ind Farm Performance ...............................................................................169
8.3.1 California Wind Farms ....................................................................170
8.3.2 Wind Farms in Other States .............................................................173
8.3.3 Other Countries ................................................................................175
8.4 W ake Effects ..................................................................................................177
8.5 E nertech 44 ....................................................................................................179
8.6 B ergey Excel ..................................................................................................182
8.7 W ater Pumping ..............................................................................................183
8.7.1 Farm Windmills ...............................................................................184
8.7.2 Electric-to-Electric Systems .............................................................185
8.8 Wind–Diesel and Hybrid Systems .................................................................185
8.9 Blade Performance ........................................................................................188
8.9.1 Surface Roughness ...........................................................................188
8.9.2 Boundary Layer Control ...................................................................191
8.9.3 Vortex Generators ............................................................................191
8.9.4 Flow Visualization ...........................................................................191
8.10 Comments ......................................................................................................192
Problems ...................................................................................................................193
References ................................................................................................................195
Chapter 9 Siting ........................................................................................................................197
9.1 Small Wind Turbines .....................................................................................197
9.1.1 Noise .................................................................................................201
9.1.2 Visual Impact ...................................................................................201
9.2 Wind Farms ...................................................................................................202
9.2.1 Long-Term Reference Stations .........................................................202
9.2.2 Siting for Wind Farms ......................................................................203
9.3 Digital Maps ..................................................................................................204
9.4 Geographic Information Systems ..................................................................204
9.5 Wind Resource Screening .............................................................................205
9.5.1 Estimated Texas Wind Power (Pacific Northwest Laboratory) ........206
9.5.2 Estimated Texas Wind Power (Alternative Energy Institute) ...........207
9.5.3 Wind Power for the United States ....................................................209
9.6 Numerical Models .........................................................................................209
9.7 Micrositing ....................................................................................................210
Contents ix
9.8 Ocean Winds .................................................................................................213
9.9 Summary .......................................................................................................214
Problems ...................................................................................................................214
Links .........................................................................................................................215
References ................................................................................................................216
Chapter 10 Applications and Wind Industry ..............................................................................219
10.1 Utility Scale ...................................................................................................219
10.2 Small Wind Turbines .....................................................................................222
10.3 Distributed Systems .......................................................................................226
10.4 Community Wind ..........................................................................................228
10.4.1 United States ....................................................................................228
10.4.1.1 Minnesota .........................................................................229
10.4.1.2 Schools, Colleges, and Universities ..................................229
10.4.1.3 Electric Cooperatives ........................................................230
10.4.1.4 Municipal and City Operations ........................................230
10.4.2 Other Countries ................................................................................231
10.5 Wind–Diesel Generation ...............................................................................232
10.6 Village Power ................................................................................................236
10.6.1 China ................................................................................................238
10.6.2 Case Study: Wind Village Power System ........................................238
10.7 Water Pumping ..............................................................................................239
10.7.1 Design of Wind Pumping System ....................................................241
10.7.2 Large Systems ..................................................................................241
10.8 Wind Industry ................................................................................................242
10.8.1 1980–1990 ........................................................................................244
10.8.2 1990–2000 ........................................................................................244
10.8.3 2000–2010 ........................................................................................245
10.8.4 2010–Onward ...................................................................................247
10.9 Storage ...........................................................................................................248
10.9.1 Compressed Air Energy Storage ......................................................251
10.9.2 Flywheels .........................................................................................251
10.9.3 Batteries ............................................................................................252
10.9.3.1 Lead Acid ..........................................................................252
10.9.3.2 Lithium (Li) Ion ................................................................253
10.9.3.3 Sodium–Sulfur .................................................................253
10.9.3.4 Flow Batteries ...................................................................254
10.9.4 Other Types of Batteries ...................................................................254
10.9.5 Hydrogen Fuel Cells .........................................................................254
10.10 Decommissioning and Repowering...............................................................255
10.10.1 United States ....................................................................................257
10.11 Comments ......................................................................................................257
Problems ...................................................................................................................258
Links .........................................................................................................................259
References ................................................................................................................259
Chapter 11 Institutional Issues ....................................................................................................263
11.1 Avoided Costs ................................................................................................263
11.2 Utility Concerns ............................................................................................264