Whose food is it anyway;The Role of African shops- the making and sustaining of a Nigerian ...

18 Pages·2009·0.07 MB·English

Whose food is it anyway-African shops and the making of a Nigerian foodway in Belgium.

Migration has been in existence since the origin of the human race. It does not matter whether your belief about
the origin of man, is influence by religion or the evolutionary theory, migration has always been an integral part
of human history. Most of the time, these migrations are directly linked to the quest for food or a means of
acquiring it. Religions are filled with stories of people who moved either by divine instruction or by divine
promise, in search of a better life and sustenance. The varied locations of archaeological excavations of early
human settlements is proof that man, through his various phases of evolution was never sedentary.
Migration as a 'constant and influential feature of human history, has supported the growth of world economy,
contributed to the evolution of states and societies and enriched many cultures and civilizations'.( khalid kosher
Dynamics of International migration perspectives , 2007). Despite various academic definitions of migration,
because of its varied context, there is still no all encompassing theory of migration .As stated by Stephen Castle
and Mark .J Miller 'it is a process which affects every dimension of social existence and which develops complex
dynamics.'(Stephen Castle and Mark J Miller, Pg 21, 2003) it is these varied dynamics which make it difficult to
define with one theory due to its 'extreme diversity, in terms of forms, types ,processes,actors,motivation,socio-
economic and cultural contexts...'(Joaquin Arango Pg33 2004,).Having said this, it in no way underemphasises
the importance or relevance of scholars' efforts to formulate theories in other to understand this trend. Stating
that people have and will migrate is a certainty not an assumption but the process or circumstances that may
initiate this migrations are complex and more difficult to determine.
With globalization and modern information dissemination, people will always want to move to places they hope
will provide a better life. The number of migrants worldwide increased from 105million in 1985 to 200 million in
2005, this new trend challenges the homogeneity of many nations. The population of most nations especially in
Europe have been irreversibly changed. A total of 7.7 percent of the total European population in 2000 were
born outside Europe. (R Pennix,M Bergher,and K Kraal.ed 2006)
This increase in the flow of international migrants across borders in the post colonial world especially from
Africa to Europe, has received a lot of interest, not just from politicians reinventing old rhetorics but by scholars
too. However scholars are now aware that these African migrants and their new communities in Diaspora, are
worth studying because now 'African Diaspora emerge not only in sites where relationships have been
established through colonial ties but in new contexts often following the circuitous pathway of Ngos,religiuos
organizations,transnational refugee networks and familial reunification'(Donald Carter Pg xii,2003)
The focus of this paper is to understand what role African shops have played in changing the food pattern of
Nigerians in Belgium. Of interest also is how Nigerian migrants were able to negotiate their way through the
complex and sometimes ‘strange’ food culture of the other groups they encountered in Belgium. Their ability to
network with other groups within their new environment and still produce a relatively authentic Nigerian
foodway in Belgium. To be a migrant is to be open to change, not just in terms of location but also in socio-
cultural interactions. Thus conforming enough to fit into their new society and being able to sustain aspects of
their identity is always a challenge. This brings to the fore, the role African shops have played in assisting not
just Nigerians but a cross section of migrants to sustain a 'distinct' foodway in Belgium. However there are other
political, economic, social and cultural factors beyond the control of these migrants, which comes to play even as
they negotiate for positions reflecting their identities through Food . How vital the impact of these outside factors
were to the emergence of a Nigerian foodway in Belgium is also of interest.
Forces that propel migration are now more complicated and varied. This makes migrants, their culture and
their food an interesting focus for an academic investigation. As people move out of their original area of
habitation, they take parts of their society with them. These are not necessarily physical objects but ingrained
cultural traits which form part of their conscious or unconscious identification processes. These influence how
they see themselves and how others see them. Most times migrants may have to redefine and realign these
identification processes, with certain identity markers still retained either out of choice or through ascribed roles
by their host communities.( Peter scholliers 2001,Anne Kershen 2002,Alison James 1997,P Caplan)

The Routes from Nigeria to Belgium.

Prior to the arrival of Europeans to the shores of Africa, Africans have been able to move from one region to the
other. There were trade routes across the Sahara between the north and the west; through the sea between the
east and the south.
However the coming of Europeans introduced another dimension to migration in Africa. Not only was there
increased internal migration, voluntarily or under duress to serve the colonial purpose, Africans were
introduced to a new form of international migration . In this new international migration, they were either
voluntary participants or forced participants.
Nigeria,a former British colony situated in the west coast of Africa is made up of people of different
independent ethnic groups. Under the administration of Lord Frederick Lugard, the diverse groups in the
2protectorates and 1 colony, were all brought together by the amalgamation of the protectorates and colony-
North, South and Lagos in 1914.This was done to facilitate the economic and later political control of by
British.(A.E Afigbo and Toyin Falola,2004 Pg 237) However before the advent of the British, internal migration
necessitated by empire building and commerce among the various kingdoms was widespread. (Crowther
Micheal 1962).
Nigeria regained its independence from Britain on October 1st 1960. It is the most populated African nation
covering a land area of 910,768sq kilometres with an estimated population of between 120 and 185 million
people. Bordered in the north by Chad and Niger, in the west by Benin, Cameroon in the east and the gulf of
Guinea in the South. The nation is divided into 36 states with one territory . There are an estimated 250 ethnic
groups in Nigeria, with many divided into subgroups. There are as many languages or even more with a variety
of dialects although English is the official language. (www.nigeria.org)

Belgium with an ancient port in Antwerp had contact with Black Africans long before it became a colonial power
in the Eastern part of Africa. By the 16th and 17th centuries Antwerp and Lisbon had the greatest African
colony(settlers)in Europe.(Etambala 1993 Pg 6) most of these were slaves and servants brought back to Europe
by their owners/masters .Evidence of this early contacts are also seen in the works, of some of the great Belgian
painters at the Royal museum of Fine Arts in Brussels. Africans were painted in portraits or as part of various
scenes,for example Peter Paul Ruben’s ‘vier studies van het hoofd van een moor’,Joos de Momper’Jachtpartij
bij een kasteel, Hieronymous Franken’s Het Kabinet van de Kunstliefhebber etc.
Like other colonialists in Africa, once King Leopold's Congo enterprise with Henry Stanley began in the late 19th
century, people from areas under their sphere of influence and control were also brought back to Belgium either
by the missionaries,colonial officers or as publicity for the Congo colony. Thus there were the petit boys,the
students and Congolese royalty(see R Slade's Leopold's Congo,Zana Aziza Etambala's In het land van de
Banoko ,Georges Nzongala-Ntalaja's The Congo from Leopold to Kabila:a People's history and Martin Ewans'
European Atrocities, African Catastrophe:Leopold the Congo free state and its aftermath)

Nigerians contact with Belgium, began in an indirect way through the King Leopold 11’s Congo colony. At the
inception of the Congo venture, personnel were needed to help administer the colony and West Africans
especially ex slaves from Nigeria were recruited. As early as 1883, a contingent of Hausas (referring to Nigerians
of varied origins) commanded by an English Cpt Sawley(or Sanley)were sent to the Congo. This group of so
called 50 Hausas was made up of mainly Yorubas with only 2 Hausas. By 1886 there was one whole company of
Hausa Soldiers, thus making Nigeria the single source of recruitment from 1883-1901 with 5.585 or 45percent of
the total force. This was made possible because at this time most of these freed slaves spoke some English ,which
with French was the main languages of colonialists.(William .J.Samari.1989,pg44)The force Publique then was
composed of, these ‘Hausas’ who were the elite of the new force and other Africans too. These men who were all
hired,not just because they were used to the environmental conditions,but also to the ways of the white men etc,
helped facilitate the Congo occupation.(L.H Gaan and P Duignan,1979,pg73)Later on administrative staffs were
also recruited from Nigeria. Thus these Nigerians not only provided the services needed ,to build the foundation
of the Congo Belge but also helped end the Leopold era in the Congo.
As more colonial nations became independent, they made efforts to establish diplomatic relations with nations
which they previously had no direct contact with. This was a mutually beneficial political, economic and
sometimes social relationship. For the emerging nations in a world divided along ideological/political spheres,
needed to emphasise their independence and build diplomatic relations which helped them boast their position in
the community of nations. Thus Nigeria a former British colony, whose contact with Belgium was only through
her citizens who worked in the Congo Colony, established a consulate in Belgium in 1963, with Mr B.N Okigbo
as the first Ambassador.( Nigerian embassy Belgium,2005 ) This was just three years after regaining her
independence.
Before this time though, a Nigerian Hezekiah Andrew Shanu,a successful businessman in the Congo; who was a
former employee of the Leopold Congo administrative service, was the first Nigerian to set foot on Belgian soil.
Born in Lagos in 1858, he was educated at the CMS elementary school where he later taught until 1884.He
joined King Leopold's service first as a recruiter of soldiers in Lagos but later moved to the Congo as a clerk. In
1894, He embarked on a European tour of Belgium, Germany and Britain . In Belgium, he gave public lectures
on the Congo, on Sunday 23 September 1894 for the ‘Tienense koloniale bond,the Brussels society for colonial
studies etc. Like future generations of Nigerians, He even enrolled his son Ridley to study at the Tienen college in
the Flemish region of Belgium. He enjoyed enormous patronage from the Belgian colonial administration until
he fell out of favour due to the Casement investigations in the Congo colony. He was accused of being the person
providing information to Morey, because of this he lost the patronage he used to enjoy and tragically committed
suicide, bankrupt and ruined.(Etambala pg 22-23,George Nzongola Ntalaya pg 25)

Having established diplomatic contacts between Belgium and Nigeria, in 1964 10 students from Nigeria were
offered scholarships to study in different higher institutions in Belgium. Thus in 1965,these students,1 female
and 9 male selected to reflect the ethnic diversity of Nigeria, arrived Belgium. The Nigerian embassy in Belgium,
arranged for these students to live with French speaking families in the Walloon area of Belgium .This is to
enable them master the French language ,the language they will be taught with. Unlike later migrants from
Nigeria these ones were compelled to learn the language (1) .At this time, Nigeria an emerging nation with a fast
growing economy, had a very good education system. When people opt to go outside the country to study, most
tend to chose English speaking countries. Any other destination was intended as a transit point to an English
speaking university later on, but this was to change.

Between 1966 and 1970,Nigeria fought a civil war(2).The aftermath of this war, especially with the publicity
and reactions it generated in Europe made more people to know about Nigeria. The humanitarian agencies
working in the secessionist region Biafra, helped to get people out of the war ravaged region to any country in
Africa or Europe that will accept them. Thus some followed the aid organizations and other international
agencies to Europe. Some of the people who got to Europe then, were not particularly choosy about which
country to go to ,all they wanted was a safe haven to start life all over. Some of them were to settle in Belgium
having gone through other countries (3)
By the early 70s, there were quite a sizeable number of Nigerian students especially in the katholieke university
of Leuven. The Majority were priests or adherents of the Roman Catholic faith. These came through the
contacts their Nigerian church dioceses had established with Belgian catholic societies and churches. This
contacts sponsored these students education in Belgium.it is worth noting that most of these were from the then
Eastern region, which pre civil war had a large number of foreign catholic priests. One of my informants stated
that when his set arrived Belgium post Nigerian civil war in the early 70s, a lot of Belgians knew nothing about
Nigeria but kept asking if they were Ghanaians .However the Belgians knew Biafra because a lot of Belgians saw
the Biafra war news and some Belgians fought and died as mercenaries on both sides.(John de St Jorre,1972)
.There were also other students especially from the western Nigeria who arrived in the mid 70s,but most of them
were in the universities in Brussels and other schools in the Walloon.These students who came to Belgium in the
70s,with Nigerian oil economy still strong and less corruption, had plans of returning home after their studies.
Some also planned to go on to Britain, Canada, or the United states to study further before going home(4) This
was to change due to circumstances at home and in Belgium. The economic downturn in Nigeria from the late
70s, political instabilities due to constant military coups and corruption played a role in changing the context of
Nigerian migration to Belgium. Although with no initial intention of staying on in Belgium, but having learnt the
language, some of the Nigerian students continued their studies in Belgium as the option of going home got less
attractive. This decision may also have been facilitated by some of them losing the funding from sponsoring
governmental agencies back home.(5)
it was the Migration from Nigeria in the late 1980s and 1990s, that not only changed the face of international
migration from Nigeria , but also the attitude of the receiving countries and the Nigerian society. With the
collapse of the Nigerian economy under corrupt military rule and the subsequent IMF and world bank imposed
measures in the 80s, many Nigerians found it difficult to afford things that they normally took for granted.
Although the 6th oil producing country in the world, there is widespread poverty in Nigeria ,which increased
sharply between 1980 and 85 and 1992/1996 with more than 70 percent earning less than a dollar a day.(Adams
J.R world Bank report 1991,O.A Adedokun Unesco series 2003 ,FOS poverty profile for Nigeria 1999,F.
Nightingale ILO gender promotion programme working paper,2003)These economic and political failures led to
the near destruction of the country's social dynamics by initiating the brain drain of the mid 80s and early
90s.Hundreds of thousands of Nigerian professionals left, for jobs in different parts of the world. For example an
agent for Saudi Arabia at a go recruited 5000 nurses and midwives,260 doctors in the city of Port
Harcourt.(Dirk Hoerder Pg 553,2002) These recruitment of professionals was happening all over the country in
other cities too. The impact was such that the then military government produced a televised orientation
programme. In this programme, an actor 'Andrew' lamented of all the difficulties in the country and decided to
leave the country too , but was told (at the airport )with a song in pidgin English' Andrew don't check out' that
' Nigeria go survive’. This became a constant jingle in the government controlled television stations of the late
80s and early 90s, but instead of deterring the Andrews, it seem to have propelled them not just towards airports
but roads ,rivers and any means of 'checking out'.
Due to difficulties posed by the working language, culture and legal requirements, Belgium was never one of the
destinations for Nigerian professionals in the 80s and 90s, as most were then interested in going to destinations
were they can still practise their professions. However the spill over effect of these phase of migrations, impacted
later on Belgium as unskilled Nigerians, also determined to escape the hardship in the country left for any
country they can get into.
This economic downturn also meant, most Nigerians could no longer afford new products, so the second hand
goods market from cars to underwears thrived. Nigerians began importing second hand cars from some
European countries especially Germany, The Netherlands and Belgium. This was because these countries use the
left hand side steering like Nigeria and cost of shipping was cheaper than countries further out. With a thriving
port in Antwerp and Nigerian students who provided a base in terms of accommodation, contacts and later as
middlemen, Belgium became the centre for exporting second hand cars to Nigeria. This was also facilitated by
some students who had finished their studies and had the fund to set up car depots or garages for selling cars.
Soon the Nigerian students in Belgium (especially those already married with families) and some of the
Nigerians who visited for business, began the transition from temporary to permanent migrants. In this later
phase of migration form Nigeria, networks played a major role through already established contacts etc. The
unique thing about this phase of migration was that unlike previous Nigerians who came to study, many of these
were lowly educated, unskilled and female too, whose sole purpose was to make money by any means possible.
So most of the women arrived Belgium, knowing they will be sold off to work for 'Madams' as prostitutes. This
wave of migration due to its nature was to attract the most negative reaction against migration from Nigeria to
Europe including Belgium.(6) A Belgian member of parliament Jean-Marie Dedecker while speaking against
Nigerian prostitution in Belgium, even stated that 'The Nigerian embassy helps them to falsify their passports.
After petrol, the biggest export of Nigeria is people'(Noelle Knox,USA Today 2003 consulted on the internet in
April 2006)with Most Coming from poor working class backgrounds, their attitude and quest for financial
growth, forced the earlier migrants to reassess their position. A Nigerian who came to Belgium to study in the
70s said 'those of us who came to study were still hoping things will improve at home, so we can go back but
when it didn't we just managed our lives looking for our daily bread but when this Babangida set () came, they
made us realise daily bread was no longer enough....' Unlike the earlier Nigerian migrants(most of who) who
were legally in Belgium, this latter group were mainly undocumented and used the crisis in various African
countries to seek asylum and claimed various nationalities(8) Although many of them had their official
addresses in areas deemed favourable for regularisation of status, they actually lived in areas in Brussels and
Antwerp where there were other undocumented migrants and contacts for jobs . Some communes in Brussels
especially Anderlecht, Moleenbeek, ,Ixelles and later Schaarbeek became the haven for Nigerians .

The Making of the Nigerian foodway in Belgium

The modern Nigerian food is a product of migration. Despite debates about what was really introduced, by
whom and what is indigenous. Many Nigerians will be surprised to know, their ancestors did not know majority
of the modern Nigerian food. The Europeans, introduced a lot of crops which today are part of the Nigerian food
way. The Portuguese are believed to have introduced cassava, which is the main stay of many Nigerian diets as it
can be fermented as cassava fufu, grated and fried as Garri; boiled, sliced and soaked overnight to produce
‘Abacha’ or dried and later prepared with hot water, milk ,sugar as tapioca custard. From the British royal
Niger Company, Nigeria got guavas, cashew nuts ,coconuts, breadfruits etc, others brought from the new world
pineapple, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, tobaccos, potatoes, avocado peas in the late 19th century.(
E.Isichie 1970)
What we now know as the Nigerian foodway, emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century .As the British
began construction of infrastructures and mining of mineral resources, young men were recruited in the
interiors to work at the sites. As these men were not encouraged to bring their wives along to cook for them, they
had to look for alternative ways of obtaining cooked food, in a society where men in the kitchen is viewed as an
anomaly. Some had the business acumen to start preparing food for sale. As these early food vendors sold food
known to their regions, it brought people in contact with food which were not known to them. Often it was the
host community that adopted the favorite dishes of the migrant population. Akara(bean fritters),moi moi(beans
pudding) eko or akamu(maize custard or porridge) and dodo(fried plaintain) which are now eaten all over the
country were introduced by the Yorubas. Suya ( spicy grilled meat)a national favourite was from the
Hausa/fulani (Reuben Udoh 1972) the delta region gave the nation Banga(palm oil) soup, the Efiks introduced a
wide range of highly rated soups edikaikong.afang,afia afere and other dishes which gained them a reputation as
culinary experts in the Nigerian society. Isi ewu,(relish prepared with goat head)Ugba (Salad of oil bean)and
Nsala soup were no longer just for the Igbos. The modern Nigerian food thus emerged out of a collection of
different regional cuisines which gained acceptance across the nation .Some others remained at the regional level
only; mostly food with peculiar taste, which only those used to them, can appreciate.

In Belgium there were other African migrant communities already in existence, throughout the different phases
of Nigerian migration to Belgium. There were North Africans from Morocco, Tunisia ,Algeria and East Africans
mainly from the Congo. Each of these groups have their food ways which relied on neighbouring groups to
strengthen it while also participating in the food culture of the host community. Thus the North Africans
especially Morocco,(with the largest migrant population from the late 60s)had a close culinary affinity with
other Muslim and Arab migrant communities. it was to the Congolese that Nigerians turned to initially ,as they
negotiated and built social networks which enabled them build a group identity needed to sustain their foodway
in Belgium because 'when various ethnic groups are forcibly thrown together,there is both an intensifying of
food identity and a growing mishmash'(Robin Fox food and Eating:An anthropological perspective on the
internet 2006) Despite the nostalgia and cultural conditioning to eat familiar food, availability coupled with
accessibility and affordability of these food , are the key components necessary to transcend from 'borrowed
cuisine' of the 'other' to having a sustainable foodway away from home. Migrant food being a symbol of
personal and group identity, provides a base for both 'individuality and a sense of common membership in a
larger group .it can also be a riddle of 'stability and change ,of borrowing and diffusion without growing
similarity or loss of identity...'(Richard R Wilk 248 1999) .Migrants including Nigerians have to be flexible
because change is a constant part of their lives. The ability to confront and adapt to changes in their everyday
lives while still retaining culturally ascribed food habits, is part of the enigma of food and migration. The new
environment inadvertently positions the migrant as the 'outsider' which necessitates him to realign his position
to affiliate and consolidate within groups which share some common identities and affiliations .Thus this builds
identity markers which can distinguish how groups are the same and yet different. As carole Counihan noted'
food practises work as a conservative force that prevents social change and obscures the political imperative to
acknowledge difference, while on the other hand ,it is precisely in the field of cross-cultural experience that it has
worked most powerfully and helped materialize, if not to resolve conflicts in positioning'(carole Counihan Pg 7
1999 )

The Nigerian students that arrived in the mid 60s, looked for Congolese social establishments once they had
settled in. There were different reasons that facilitated these contacts. Not only were the Congolese black
Africans, they also owned 'Cafés' with provision for dancing and eating. As Belgium was still very much divided
along colour lines then, these were the only establishments, where Nigerians could socialize. The Cafés also
provided them the with the opportunity of eating 'home food’. Although the food served in these cafes were
with food items they know from Nigeria, they could only eat fried plantain with rice and hot sauce as the other
dishes were unfamiliar. Visits to these cafés were rare though, because the students could not afford the cost on
students’ allowances. To augment, they bought food (especially familiar items like meat, rice, potatoes, tomatoes
etc) available in the Belgian shops and cooked them to taste like Nigerian food 'because 'to eat the familiar is to
be home at least in the heart..' and '... sense of place is very much involved with the sense of taste' (David Bell
and Gill Valentine 1997 in E.N Anderson Pg 135 2005). An informant said what surprised the families they lived
with then, was the quantity of meat they bought. Coming from a society where meat is a high value food and
with ascribed prestige, this cultural influence from Nigeria found an opportunity through the availability and
low cost of meat in Belgium, to be demonstrated by these students. However it took some time for them to
master how to cook this 'soft meat' because they were not used to its tender nature. Later on though strong/hard
chicken and cuts which are really tough became available.
On the other hand the Nigerians that worked at the Embassy, by the nature of their job, had access to Nigerian
food from home. Also being members of the Nigerian elite, a foreign diet had always being a mark of class back
home; although later it was to be the reverse for Nigerians in Belgium. So food amongst this group of Nigerians,
represented a dual cultural and social symbol. Nevertheless they were able to aid other Nigerians ,in the 70s and
80s in Belgium to have access to Nigerian food. At this time the Nigerian Shipping Line still had ships sailing the
oceans of the world. So whenever they had information from contacts in the Embassy, that a ship from Nigeria
will dock at Antwerp port, the Nigerians (mainly students) collected free used electronics which they took to
Antwerp. Here they exchanged them with the Nigerian Sailors aboard the ships for Nigerian food Going back to
the basic form of acquiring goods by barter, just to eat the familiar. As this system of acquiring food was
irregular, most Nigerians had to rely on food parcels from home or cooking available food with a spicy touch.(9)

In different countries the migrants, initiated ethnic businesses to cater for their communities by supplying them
with goods and services which are unavailable in the host community (Ann J.Kershen Pg 3, 2002) With Belgium
it was different. In 1978, an Italian lady Madam Adelu, who was a stall holder at the Midi Market in Brussels,
took a business decision which was to change not just the Nigerian food way but migrant food culture in
Belgium. Although Antwerp had a long established African presence, it was Brussels that provided the enabling
environment for her to set up a shop. Her shop was established on chausee de wavre at the heart of the 'Matonge
Quatier' of Ixelle Brussels. This Matonge neighbourhood, was named after a neighbourhood in Kinshasa in
Kalamu Commune formerly Camp Renkin. This area close to Port de Namur in Brussels, covering the areas
around Chausse de Wavre, Chausee d'Ixelle, Rue d’ Edimbourg ,Rue de Dublin, Rue de la Paix, Quatier saint
Boniface etc ,is the vibrant epicentre of Black African socio -economic life in Belgium. The existence of Matonge
was made possible by the presence of students of Congolese origin whose residence the Maison Africaine was
established nearby in the 50s.There was also the Maison des Coloniales-(l'union des femmes de coloniales) on
Rue de Strassart, which served colonialist or aspiring colonialists and their spouses. This made Matonge a
meeting point for African and employees of the Congo colonial establishment,a mini African settlement in the
hear of Brussels. With the Congolese independence, more businesses were established in the area by families of
the Congolese ruling class, which in turn attracted more people to the area. Thus turning it into a centre for
business on African fashion, food and culture a meeting point for hundreds of nationalities(mayoyo Bitumba
Tipo-Tipo 1995,Zana Aziza Etambala,Fr.wikipedia.org, comment peut-on etre Noir Reflexions sur lar Negritude)
Mrs Adelu who had no previous knowledge about African food, had to rely on Congolese contacts to import the
food she sold. Even though these Congolese had the knowledge of what food was in demand and where to get