Water Renovation and Reuse PDF
Preview Water Renovation and Reuse
Water Renovation and Reuse Edited by HILLEL I. SHUVAL Environmenl Htaealth Laboratorise The Hebrew Universiyt Jerusale, Imsrael ACADEMIC PRESS Ne w York Sa n Francisoc Londo n 197 7 A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers COPYRIGHT © 1977,B Y ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART O F THIS PUBLICATION MA Y B E REPRODUCED O R TRANSMITTDE I N ANY FORM O RB Y ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, O RA N Y INFORMATION STORAGE AN D RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOU T PERMISSINO I N WRITING FRO M TH E PUBLISHER. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. Ill Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24/28 Oval Road, London NW 1 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Water renovation and reuse. (Water pollution series) Includes bibliographies. 1. Water reuse. 2. Sewage-Purification. I. Shuval, Hillel I., Date TD429.W37 62δ'.3 76-12421 ISBN 0-12-641250-2 PRINTED I N THE UNITED STATES O F AMERICA List of Contributors Numbes ri n parenthess iendicaet the pages on which the author' scontributiosn begi.n SORAB J . ARCEIVALA (275) , World Health Organizatio,n Yenisehir, Ankara, Turkey D. A . BAILEY (395), Yorkshier Water Authorit,y Yorkshir,e England GEORGES BELFORT (129), Human Environmentl Saciences Program, School o f Applied Science and Technolog, Tyhe Hebrew Universit, yJerusale, Imsrael DOLLOFF F . BISHOP (427), Municipal Environmentl Raesearch Laborator,y U.S. Environmenl Ptarotectino Agency, Cincinnat, Oi hi o LAWRENCE K . CECIL (93), Consulting Chemical Enginee,r Champaig,n Illinois LUCEEN DUCKSTEIN (191), Departmens ot f Systems and Industrial Engineering and o f Hydrology and Water Resource, sUniversiyt o f Arizona, Tucson, Arizona G. E . EDE N (395), Water Research Centre, Stevenaeg Laborator,y Stevenag,e Hert,s England AKIVA FEINMESSER (73), Ministry o f Agricultur, eJerusale,m Israel OLIVER O . HAR T (353), National Institute fo r Water Research, Council fo r Scienticf ain d Industrial Researc,h Pretoria, Republic o f South Africa K. JONES (395), Water Pollution Researhc Laborator, Sytevenag, Heerts, England ix χ List of Contributors WILLIAM F . JOPLING (217), Water Sanitatino Section, Californai Departmetn o f Healt,h Berkele,y California CHESTER C . KISIEL1 (191), Departmens ot f Systems and Industrial Engineering and o f Hydrology an d Water Resource, sUniversiyt o f Arizona, Tucson, Arizona TAKESHI KUB O (331), Japan Sewage Works Agency, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan F. M . MIDDLETO N (3) , Municipla Environmentl aResearch Laboratory, U.S . Environmenl Ptarotectino Agency, Cincinnat, Oi hi o W. J. MULLER (255), Lehrstulh fur Wasserversorgu, Anbgwasserbeseitigg uunnd Stadtbauwe,s Teenchnisceh Hochschu,l Dearmstad, Gt ermany JOSEF NOY 2 (73) , Soil an d Irrigation Fiel d Service, Ministry o f Agricultur,e Jerusale, Imsrael HENRY J. ONGERTH (217), Water Sanitation Section, California Departmetn o f Healt,h Berkele,y California GEDALIAH SHELEF (309), Departmetn o f Environmenlt Eangineerin,g Technion- Israle Instituet o f Technolog, Hyaifa, Israel HILLEL I . SHUVAL (33), The Hebrew Universit,y Jerusale,m Israel G. J. STANDER (117) , Water Researhc Commissio, nPretoria, Republci o f South Africa AKINORI SUGIKI (331), Japan Sewage Works Agency, Toda City, Saitama-ke,n Japna LUCAS R . J. VA N VUUREN (353), National Instituet for Water Researc,h Council for Scientifci and Industrial Researc,h Pretoria, Republic o f South Africa 1 Deceased. 2Present address: At Ruppin Institute of Agriculture, Emek, Hefer, Israel. Preface You never know the worth of water till the well runs dry. BENJAMIN F RANKLIN It i s the goal o f this book t o present a detailed and up-to-daet review of the generl aprinciples and technologicl daevelopmens ot f water renovatino an d reues and to provide documentd ecase studies of reuse experienec and practice throughot tuhe world. Part I , "Generla and Technologicl Aaspects' i/ncludes eight chaptesr dealing with different aspecst o f the problem, each chaptre written by an authoriyt i n the field. Part II , "Experienec and Practice around the World," also includes eight chaptesr which report o n water reuse practice i n developde a s well a s developgi ncountrie, sincluding arid zones and those endowed with abundant watre resource. s Theer i s a growing understandgi tnhroughotu the world o f the urgent need to conserv,e recycle, and reuse our limited water resource. Tshe scienc,e tech- nolog,y and practice of water renovatino and reuse have gone through a number of phases i n the past one-hundrde years. The initial phase was motivatde b y two quite different thrusts: one based o n th e conservationi's ctosncept that societsy w' astes should be conservde and utilized to preserev the fertility of the soi,l while the other, more pragmatc iapproac,h was directed toward elimina-t ing river pollution. The conservatni oapproach i s expressde i n Victor Hugo's "Les Miserable"s , publishde i n 1868, in which the author eloquenty ldeplored the dumping of the xi xii Preface sewaeg of Paris into the river, riinning wastefuyl lt o the sea. He wrote: "All the human and animal manure which th e world loses, i f returned t o the land, insteda o f being thrown into the sea, would suffice t o nourish the world." The pollution control approach i s exemplifide b y the report o f the first Royal Commissino o n Sewage Disposal i n England i n 1865. The Commissino recommendd tehat "Th e right wa y t o dispose o f town sewage i s to apply i t continuouy stlo land, and i t i s by such applicatino that the pollution of rivers can b e avoided". A t the end o f the last centur,y the concetp of land treatmetn of sewage b y grass filtration and broad irrigation was initiated i n the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States primariyl a s a method o f sewage treatmet tno reduce river pollution rather than as a rationla method of conser-v ing water or returnign nutrienst to the soil. A number of early project, showeve,r stressd ethe conservatni aospect of water reuse. Most of these early land disposal projecs wt ere eventualyl abandonde a s the cities grew because the extensive land areas required were n o longer available and because o f esthetci an d publci health consideratio.n s In the second phase, which continuse to this day, the driving force has mainly been the need t o conserev and reuse water i n arid areas. A t first, w e see the main efforts o f water renovatino and reuse for agricultuer developign i n the water-shto arreas o f the United States such a s California an d Texas and i n countrsi esuch as South Africa, Israel, and India. I n Israe,l for exampl,e waste- watre reuse became a declarde nationla policy in 19 5 5. The Nationla Water Plan includde reuse of all major sources of municipla wastewart ien the program for the developmet onf the countrys 'limited potentila water resource. s Toda,y due to the ever increasign demansd for more and more wate,r plans for watre renovation and reuse are spreading t o many areas o f the world no t normayl lconsiderde arid. Such programs have broadende t o industria, rlecrea- tiona, land even municipla use in addition to the already well-establisdh foerms of reuse i n agricultur. e The third phase overlaps the second and i s based once again on the urgent need to reduce river and lake pollutio.n I n areas in which expensiev high levels of advancde waste treatmetn ar e required t o protect waters, i t has become apparet tno plannesr that once so much effort has been devoted t o treating the wastewar itet might b e more logical t o reuse i t directyl rather than dump i t back into the rivers. The most extreme expressino o f this phase has resulted from th e policy o f "zero pollution" which has been promulgatde recentyl i n the United States. This policy may lead to programs of land disposla or other forms of reuse solely as pollution control measures whether o r not there i s an objective need fo r watre reuse. Simultaneoyu wslit h thi s current phase o f planned, direct reuse, w e ar e witnessgi mnassive indirect o r covert reuse o f wastewart ae s a result o f th e Preface xiii almots universal withdrawla o f water supplies for urban, industria, al nd agri- culturl apurposes from heavily polluted rivers. The down-strema sections o f the world's major rivers carry significatn loads of wastewat, emruch of it only partiayl tlreate,d i f at all. During periods of minimal base flow, rivers such as the Rhine, Thame,s and Ohio may carry anywheer betwene 20 and 50% urban and industrli waastewat.e Wrater withdrawn from such sources i s without doubt one of the most common forms of wastewart reeuse. I t has been estimatde that some 100 million people throughotu the world are being supplied today with drinkign water by this form o f indirect wastewatr reeuse. Theer i s increasign evidenec that conventionl waater treatmet pnlants are not fully capabel o f removing the hundresd of potentiayl hl armful organic and in - organci pollutanst that appear i n such water sources. Nor can they b e full y dependd eupon t o remove or inactivae tall harmful microorganiss omf sewage origin. Viruses have been shown t o b e particulayr rlesistatn t o conventionl a treatmet mnethods o f heavily polluted water wit h hig h concentratios onf organci matte.r Advanced wastewatr tereatmet ntechnoloyg now being devel- oped i s needed even more urgentyl t o meet the problems arising from indirect or covert reuse than fo r any future plans that may eventuayll develop for direct reues for municipla purpose.s Wastewar treenovatino and reuse technoloyg has today become a major area of interets to engineer, bsiologist, cshemist, asgronomis,t psublic health officers, and water resourcse authoritie. Tsheir concenr may vary from the need to pre- vent surface water pollution, the desire t o conserev and recycel soil nutrient, s and the developmet onf additionl awater resourcse for agricultur, iendustr,y o r urban uses as well as the protectino o f public health. We are living i n a world that i s rapidly despoilign and exhaustign its limited watre resource. sA s time goes on, the rational conservatio, rnenovatio,n an d reues o f water will play a major role i n protectign our precious water source,s recyclign them i n a rational way fo r the better use of man. Over the past twenty-fiev years, the various aspecs tof this problem have been extensivye rel searche. Idn additio,n vast practicl aexperiene chas been gained i n many parts o f the world i n actual water reuse practic.e Water reuse today i s rapidyl developing a sound, scientifci base and can draw o n many new and importat tnechnologicl daevelopmen. Ttshis volume will provide designes rand scientis, atss well as policy maker,s with a better understandgi onf the complex natuer o f this vital and growing area of water resourcse managemet wnhich i s so closeyl related to the protectino o f human health and well-being. HUM I. Shuval 1 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technology in Water Reuse F. M. Middleton I. Introduction 3 II. Specific Considerations Governing Reuse 4 III. Definitions 6 IV. Composition of Wastewaters 7 V. Treatment Processes 8 A. Screening and Settling 8 B. Biological Processes 9 C Advanced Processes 9 VI. Residues Resulting from Treating Wastewaters 21 VII. Systems and Costs (1974 Dollars) for Water Renovation and Reuse 23 A. Irrigation Reuse 23 B. Recreational Reuse 24 C Industrial Reuse 26 D. Domestic Reuse of Nonpotable Water 28 E. Domestic Reuse of Near-Potable Water 28 References 32 I. INTRODUCTION It i s clear that i n the United States and many other parts o f the world re- cyclign and reuse o f all our resourcse will have t o become a way o f life. The Presidet onf the United States stated th e case well when presentign t o th e Congres sthe first report on Environmenlt Qauality (1970). He said, "We can no 3 4 F. Μ. Middleton longer afford the indiscriminea wtaste of our natural resource; nseither should we accept a s inevitabel the mounting costs o f waste remova.l W e must move increasinyg tloward closed systems that cycle what are now considerde wastes back into useful and productiev purposes". Water has always been used and reused b y man. Th e natural water cycle, evaporatni aon d precipitatio, ins on e o f reuse. Cities an d industries dra w watre from surface streams and dischareg wastes into the same stream, swhich, in turn, become the water supplies for downstrema users. I n the past, dilution and natural purificatino were usually sufficient fo r such a system t o perform satisfacto,r biluyt, i n recent years, populatino and industrila growth have made it evident that wastewatr me ust b e treated before dischareg t o maintani th e qualiyt o f the stream. More often than not, treatmet nhas become inadequaet or nonexisten. t Conservatni moeasurse would save much water that i s now waste.d Manu facturign processse can often be altered to cause less pollution and water i n an industrli palant can b e recycled. Neverthele,s csities and industrise will still requier large amounst o f water. Pollution control measurse require the treat ment o f wastewart teo restore i t t o good quality so i t may b e reused. Waste watre so treatde can be considerd ean additionl awater resourc, eand its planned reues for purposse other than drinking can result in large savings of clean water supplie. Fsrom the health point of view, the direct reuse of wastewart meay b e differet nonly i n degree—ro perhaps not at all—from the indirect or uninten tional reuse resulting form the withdrawl ao f polluted water from rivers. The good managemet onf all of our water resourcse i s the key of optimum use. Pollutino control has now become a necessyi ti n most countrise and, backed by the force of law, large-scae albatemet pnrojecst are i n progres. sMost waste watesr contain only small amounst o f contaminan. Mtsunicipal wastewates r are often only 0.1% contamina. nI tt i s obvious that a huge reuseabel water resoure cexists i n the wastewatse frrom cities and industrie. Tshe potentias flor the various types o f wastewart reeuse are discussde elsewheer i n this book. The purpose o f this chapter i s to describe wastewart tereatmetn processe, s particulay raldvancde system,s and give examplse of combinatios onf processse to achieve a variety o f water qualities for reuse. II. SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING REUSE The reuse of treatde effluenst i s most applicabe lwhere large volumes of water are used and the wastes are not too contaminat.e Inddustrial wastes may b e heaviyl contaminatd ean d therefore ma y no t offer much potential fo r th e recovey or f clean water. The location o f the treatmetn plant and the possibel 1. Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technology 5 transpot orf the renovatde water are importatn consideratio.n As wastewatr e renovatni oplant need not always be located at the same place as the municipla wastewar dteisposal plant, nor should th e renovation process b e dependetn upon treating th e total flow. Treatmetn processse work most efficientyl an d economicya wllhen dealing with a steady flow o f wastewat, erarther than with the irregular flow normalyl experiencd efrom urban source. sThis conditino can be obtained b y withdrawign only a part o f the urban wastewat,e ars depicted in Fig. 1 , which shows how water renovatino and reuse can be planned to best advantae ign the communit.y One very importatn question i s whethre the wastewart weill be reused only once o r whether i t will be recyclde many times; multipel recycling results i n a buildup of certani dissolvde material, esspeciayl ilnorganci ions, that may make demineralizant nieocessar. yMost reuses d o no t lead t o a high degree o f re cyclin.g Irrigation, which i s a n increasingy lcommon reuse o f wastewart ies highyl variable, but i t also may not normalyl offer an opportunyi tfor multiple recyclign unless i t i s serving as a step in a treatmet snystem for producign water for domestci use. Domesct rieuse offers the best recycel opportuni,t byut, even then, the amount of water recycled falls short of the total amount o f water used. The wastewatr e arrivign at the treatmetn plant i s generalyl found t o b e less than the amount originayl sl upplied to the municipla water system. Losses occu,r and they may be quite large i n warm dr y areas, where domestci reuse i s most likely t o b e practic.e Idn the United States, it i s estimatde that these losses range from less than 20% in humid areas t o about 60% in arid areas. Losses of this magnitued call fo r a substantil aamount o f make-up water, which, i n turn, keeps th e minerla concentratni forom building u p excessive.l Tyhe degree o f deminera lizatino needed i s thus substantiayl lless than i t would b e i n the absence o f lossse and make-up water. I t can b e achieved b y demineralizgin either the renovadt ewastewart oer the supplementya wrater source. I n certani circum stance, tshe latter may b e more effective. Discharges of industrial Discharge of wastes unsuitable household sewage for reclamation TRUNK venflowTi Sludges SEWER ο plant ψ returned to Wastewater renovation plant! -Clean water for reuse To municipal disposal plant Fig. 1. Simplified wastewater reuse scheme. The diversion of wastewater (a) from the trunk sewer to the wastewater renovation plant should be chosen at a point where it is known that the trunk sewer contains only household sewage.
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