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GLOBAL CHALLENGES IN WATER GOVERNANCE SERIES EDITORS: KEVIN GRECKSCH · SHILPI SRIVASTAVA Water Insecurity and Water Governance in Urban Kenya Policy and Practice Anindita Sarkar Global Challenges in Water Governance Series Editors Kevin Grecksch, School of Geography, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Shilpi Srivastava, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK Water access and distribution is getting increasingly complex and contested across the globe. Water is one of the most potent mediums through which climate change impacts are being felt and will be experi- enced in the coming years. Against this context, this series focuses on the core challenges and innovations in the water sector linking them with water politics, justice and rights for both human and non-human systems. We are particularly interested in the cross-sectional and cross- sectoral impacts of water governance across different geographies and social systems. Each volume in the series tackles issues of critical importance to water governance—from relationships of science to policy, to water politics and human rights, to ecological concerns—to clarify what is at stake and to organise the complex contexts in which decisions are made. Oriented towards interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary engagements, this series provides fresh, accessible insights across the social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences from established academics, early career researchers and practitioners, especially from the under-represented groups and regions in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The accessible, short format of books in the series are ideal for educa- tors, as policy primers for governmental and non-governmental sectors, and for researchers whose work is directly or incidentally connected to water issues. Kevin Grecksch, School of Geography and Environment, University of Oxford, UK Shilpi Srivastava, Resource Politics and Environmental Change Cluster, Institute of Development Studies, UK Anindita Sarkar Water Insecurity and Water Governance in Urban Kenya Policy and Practice Anindita Sarkar Department of Geography Miranda House, University of Delhi New Delhi, India Global Challenges in Water Governance ISBN 978-3-031-15538-3 ISBN 978-3-031-15539-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15539-0 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover credit: © saulgranda/Getty images This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements This book is a part of my research project “Water Insecurities among Urban Poor” which was funded by the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India and was undertaken at the Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU). I wish to express my appreciation to my funding agency as well as JNU which supported me with its academic resources. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Samantha C. Winter, Research Associate of Rutgers University and Yvonne Maingey, Research Scholar, University of Nairobi for their valuable inputs in my research work. I owe special thanks to my four dedicated and enthusiastic field investigators and inter- preters in Nairobi, Monaisha, Anne Lilian Akinyi, Anne Muini Wambya and Everline Atteng. My multidisciplinary analysis was nurtured by the exchange of ideas and information from various key informants at the Government depart- ments, NGOs, and academics. I am especially thankful to Mr. Richard Cheruiyot, Inspectorate Manager at Water Services Regulatory Board (WSB), Mr. Nahashon Muguna, Technical Director, Nairobi Water and Sewerage Company (NWSC), Mr. Ohnson Randu, Finance and Strategy Director, NWSC, and David Kemei, Department of Informal Settlements, NWSC. Most importantly, I deeply appreciate the time and patience of the slum residents who were respondents to my interviews and focus group discussions. v vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am blessed to have parents whose wisdom and kindness have always motivated me to follow my dreams. Thanks to my sisters for giving me boundless support. I would like to extend my love and especial tribute to my husband Animesh who has been a constant source of encourage- ment. He assisted me with my field work and also gave critical inputs to my work. This acknowledgement will be incomplete without thanking my son Simba (Anishk) for giving me the greatest joy by choosing me to be his mom and being the most supportive son ever. He has witnessed the journey of this work growing from my womb to my lap while I transformed this work from my field notes to this book. Contents 1 Water Insecurity and Urban Water Governance: Understanding the Context 1 Introduction 2 Water Insecurity 3 Water Insecurity: Concept and Definition 4 Urban Water Insecurity 4 Measuring Water Insecurity 5 Urban Poor and Water Insecurity 7 Water Governance 7 Water Governance: Concept and Definition 8 Water Governance to Address Water Insecurity 10 The Changing Paradigm of Water Access Urban Water Governance 13 Water as a Public Good 13 Water as an Economic Good 14 Water as an Economic Good and Environmental Good 15 Water as a Common Good 16 Water (Access) as a Human Right 16 Water as a Common Responsibility 18 Application of Concepts in the Study: Creation of New Waterscapes by Water Access and Use 19 References 22 vii viii CONTENTS 2 Water Services and Water Infrastructure in Urban Africa 29 Changing Mode of Urban Water Governance in Africa 30 Challenges of Urban Water Governance in Africa: Vicious Cycle of Poor Water Service Provisions and Low Investment in Water Infrastructure 32 Expansion of Water Infrastructure and Funding Gap 33 Changing Role of Water Governance in Africa: Relationship Between State and Water Infrastructure 35 Water Supply to Urban Poor in Africa 38 References 39 3 Evolution of Urban Water Supply in Kenya 43 1900–1963: Initiation of Modern Urban Water Network and Its Expansion Under Colonial Power 44 1963–1973: Abolition of Colonial Restriction and Increase in Demand for Water Services 46 1973–1979: Era of Big Plans to the Beginning of Debt Accumulation 47 1979–1990: Era of Basic Needs Approach to Total Insolvency of Water Sector 49 1990–1999: The Era of Privatization and Pay-For-Service Approach 50 1999–present: Towards Private-Sector Participation and Government’s Role as Facilitator 50 Deterioration of Water Service Provision in Kenya: From “Past Glory” to “Present Shortages” 52 References 60 4 Access to Affordable, Safe Water Supply in Urban Kenya: A Macro Analysis 63 Access to Safe and Affordable Water in the World and Africa 64 Access to Safe and Affordable Water Coverage in Different Parts of Africa 67 Piped Water Supply in Urban Kenya and Nairobi 69 Piped Water Supply to the Urban Poor 73 Ways in Which Urban Poor Access Water from the Utility Network 75 CONTENTS ix Standpipes 76 Domestic Resale 80 Alternative Piped Water Connections 81 References 88 5 Standpipes, Water Vendors, and Water ATMs: Who Wins and Who Loses? 91 The Study Area: The Mathare Slums 93 Methodology 94 Sources of Water for Domestic Use in Mathare 96 Sources of Domestic Water Supply in Mathare 96 Accessing One to Many Water Sources: Its Location and Ownership 98 Water Access from Standpipes, Water Vendors, and Water ATMs 103 Time of Water Supply from Standpipes, Water ATMs, and Water Vendors 107 Comparative Water Tariffs: Causes and Its Implications 111 Conflicts and Challenges of Fetching Water 119 Levels of Satisfaction and Willingness to Pay for Water 125 Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages of the Water Sources 128 References 132 6 Coping Strategies and Adaptive Responses to Water Insecurity 135 Coping Strategies and Adaptive Responses at the Community Level 136 Coping Strategies and Adaptive Responses at the Household Level 140 Coping Strategies and Adaptive Responses at the Individual Level 144 Coping Strategies and Adaptive Responses: Institutions and Individuals 148 References 150 7 Conclusion: The Way Forward 153 Water as a Constitutional Right in Kenya 154 Water Tariffs and Cost Recovery 155