Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture PDF
Preview Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture
WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA OCEANOGRAPHY; METEOROLOGY; PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY; WATER LAW; AND WATER HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA Editor-in-Chief EditorialStaff Jay Lehr, Ph.D. Vice President,STM Books: Janet Bailey EditorialDirector, STM Encyclopedias: SeniorEditor Sean Pidgeon Jack Keeley Executive Editor: BobEsposito Director, BookProductionand Manufacturing: AssociateEditor CamilleP. Carter Janet Lehr ProductionManager: Shirley Thomas Senior ProductionEditor: Kellsee Chu InformationTechnologyDirector IllustrationManager: Dean Gonzalez ThomasB. Kingery III EditorialProgramCoordinator:JonathanRose WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA OCEANOGRAPHY; METEOROLOGY; PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY; WATER LAW; AND WATER HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE Jay Lehr, Ph.D. Editor-in-Chief Jack Keeley Senior Editor Janet Lehr Associate Editor Thomas B. Kingery III Information Technology Director TheWaterEncyclopediaisavailableonlineat http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/eow/ A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Copyright2005byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved. PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic, mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanning,orotherwise,exceptaspermittedunderSection107or108ofthe1976UnitedStates CopyrightAct,withouteitherthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthroughpaymentoftheappropriate per-copyfeetotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,978-750-8400,fax978-646-8600,oron thewebatwww.copyright.com.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbeaddressedtothePermissionsDepartment,John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,(201)748-6011,fax(201)748-6008. 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Lehr,Jay WaterEncyclopedia:Oceanography;Meteorology;PhysicsandChemistry;WaterLaw;andWater History,Art,andCulture ISBN0-471-73684-8 ISBN0-471-44164-3(Set) PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10987654321 CONTENTS Preface ix ThePermanentServiceforMeanSeaLevel 118 Contributors xi MarineandEstuarineMicroalgalSediment ToxicityTests 120 MarineStockEnhancementTechniques 124 Oceanography PhysicalandChemicalVariabilityofTidal Air–SeaInteraction 1 Streams 128 NOAA’sAtlanticOceanographicand BlackWaterTurnstheTideonFloridaCoral 133 MeteorologicalLaboratory 4 ShallowWaterWaves 135 LaboratoryExperimentsOnBivalveExcretion WaterWaves 138 RatesofNutrients 6 WoodsHole:TheEarlyYears 139 TemporalScalingofBenthicNutrient AnAnalysisoftheInternationalMaritime RegenerationinBivalve-DominatedTidalFlat 11 Organization–LondonConventionAnnual Breakwaters 14 OceanDumpingReports 144 TheOceaninClimate 21 MarineSourcesofHalocarbons 149 CoastalWaters 23 FoodChain/Foodweb/FoodCycle 151 MarineColloids 27 Plankton 154 DeepWaterCorals 32 MajorIonsinSeawater 159 MarineDebrisAbatement 38 Tsunami 160 LarvaeandSmallSpeciesofPolychaetesin MarineToxicologicalTesting 42 Meteorology ElNin˜o:TheInterannualPredictionProblem 43 RenewableEnergiesfromtheOcean 44 BallooningandMeteorologyintheTwentieth EstuarianWaters 49 Century 164 NOS/NMFSCooperativeResearchonCoastal BarometricEfficiency 166 FisheriesandHabitatsattheBeaufort CERES:UnderstandingTheEarth’sCloudsand Laboratory 55 Climate 169 DistributionandDynamicsofGasHydratesin Chinook 170 theMarineEnvironment 57 GlobalClimateChange 171 OceanographicEnvironmentofGlacierBay 61 ObservationsofClimateandGlobalChangefrom NOSSanctuariesProtectNation’sMaritime Real-TimeMeasurements 172 History 62 Overview:TheClimateSystem 179 QuantificationofAnoxiaandHypoxiainWater ClimateandSociety 183 Bodies 64 WhatisClimatology? 186 FloatingIce 69 CloudSeeding 187 TechnologyDevelopment:Hardware Condensation 188 Development—MarineInstrumentation CosmicWater 189 Laboratory(MIL) 70 TheWaterCycle 191 SeasonalCouplingBetweenIntertidal Cyclones 194 MacrofaunaandSedimentColumnPorewater WaterCycle 196 NutrientConcentrations 73 DegreeDayMethod 197 MappingtheSeaFlooroftheHistoricArea Desertification 199 RemediationSite(HARS)OffshoreofNew Dew 200 YorkCity 77 NOAAandUniversityScientistsStudyMethyl DewDeserts 201 BromideCyclingintheNorthPacific 80 DewPoint 207 TidallyMediatedChangesinNutrient Droughts 208 Concentrations 81 DroughtIndices 209 TheRoleofOceansintheGlobalCyclesof TheEarthObservingSystem:Aqua 214 Climatically-ActiveTrace-Gases 85 EntropyTheoryForHydrologicModeling 217 PacificMarineEnvironmentalLaboratory—30 Evaporation 223 YearsofObservingTheOcean 89 Evapotranspiration 226 SeawaterTemperatureEstimatesin Fog 229 Paleoceanography 92 CoastalFogAlongtheNorthernGulfofMexico 230 PhysicalOceanography 95 RainForests 239 CoastalWaterPollutants 96 Frost 240 TraceElementPollution 109 FrostDamage 241 CoralReefsandYourCoastalWatershed 113 TheGlobalWaterCycle 242 SeaLevelandClimate 117 Ground-BasedGPSMeteorologyatFSL 244 v vi CONTENTS ClimateandWaterBalanceontheIslandof CoagulationandFlocculation 424 Hawaii 255 Conductivity-Electric 429 HeatofVaporization 263 ConservationandtheWaterCycle 433 HydrologicHistory,Problems,andPerspectives 265 Defluroidation 434 Humidity—Absolute 269 Deuterium 438 RelativeHumidity 270 DistilledWater 441 Hurricanes:ModelingNature’sFury 274 ElectricityasaFluid 442 HydrologicCycle 275 AnalysisofAqueousSolutionsUsing Hydrosphere 283 ElectrosprayIonizationMassSpectrometry HydrologicCycle,WaterResources,andSociety 287 (esims) 443 IsohyetalMethod 290 Fenton’sReactionandGroundwater WhatAboutMeteorology? 292 Remediation 445 BasicResearchforMilitaryApplications 295 WhereWaterFloats 448 UncertaintiesinRainfall–RunoffModeling 297 Freshwater 449 Monsoon 304 DissolvedGases 450 AfricanMonsoons 304 HardWater 452 PermanentFrost 305 AnAnalysisofTheImpactofWateronHealth RadarUseinRainfallMeasurements 306 andAging:IsAllWaterTheSame? 455 Rainfall 309 HeavyWater 462 RainfallandRunoff 315 Henry’sLaw 466 RemoteSensingofApplicationsinHydrology 319 HofmeisterEffects 468 AtmosphericScientists 328 ClathrateHydrates 471 RainSimulators 330 Hydration 475 SnowDensity 333 TheMirageofTheH Economy 477 2 FlattopMountainSnotelSnowpack:WaterYear HydrogenIon 480 2004 334 TheHydroniumIon 482 SnowandSnowmelt 336 InfiltrationandSoilMoistureProcesses 484 SnowSurveys 337 IonExchangeandInorganicAdsorption 490 AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriod Iron 496 Analysis 338 Isotopes 499 Sublimation 343 IsotopeFractionation 500 Transpiration 345 MariotteBottle—UseinHydrology 503 Waterspout 347 MarsExplorationRoverMission 504 UnitedStatesWeatherBureau 347 RemovalofOrganicMicropollutantsandMetal WeatherForecastingThroughTheAges 348 IonsfromAqueousSolutionsbyActivated OverviewofWeatherSystems 352 Carbons 506 UnitHydrographTheory 355 MolecularNetworkDynamics 511 WeatherandtheAtmosphere 360 InSituChemicalMonitoring 514 VaporPressure 362 Nitrogen 517 AdiabaticCooling 366 Osmosis-DiffusionofSolventorCausedby RainandRocks:TheRecipeforRiverWater DiffusionofSolutes? 520 Chemistry 371 PartitioningandBioavailability 521 PhysicalProperties 527 Physicsand Chemistryof Water EnvironmentalPhotochemistryinSurface Waters 529 AcidRainandSociety 377 IsotopeExchangeinGas-WaterReactions 535 AdsorptionCapacityofActivatedCarbonfor RadoninWater 541 WaterPurification 381 AdsorptionofOrganicCompounds 384 SilicainNaturalWaters 548 AgeDatingOldGroundwater 388 SodiuminNaturalWaters 551 Ammonia 390 SoftWater 553 BerylliuminWater 394 SolubilityofChemicalsinWater 555 DissolvedOrganicCarbon 399 SolubilityofHydrocarbonsinSaltWater 559 MechanismsofWaterAdsorptiononCarbons 400 SolubilityofHydrocarbonsandSulfur TheEffectofCarbonSurfaceChemical CompoundsinWater 561 CompositionontheMechanismofPhenol SorptionKinetics 564 AdsorptionfromAqueousSolutions 404 SoundinWater 569 CarbonateGeochemistry 408 WaterontheSpaceStation 572 CarbonateinNaturalWaters 413 StrontiumIsotopesinWaterandRock 574 Chlorine-36andVeryOldGroundwaters 416 TechnetiuminWater 578 Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) 420 Water—Nature’sMagician 583 CONTENTS vii FreezingandSupercoolingofWater 585 WaterBetweenArabsandIsraelis:Researching ChemicalPrecipitation 586 Twice-PromisedResources 699 AntimonyinAquaticSystems 589 TheMythofBadCholesterol:WhyWaterIsA BetterCholesterol-LoweringMedication 701 Water Law and Economics EarlyClocks 702 WaterClocks 704 TheCleanWaterAct 595 OurEvolvingWaterConsciousness 707 CleanWaterAct,WaterQuality EffectiveWaterEducationStrategiesina Criteria/Standards,TMDLs,and NontraditionalSetting 713 Weight-of-EvidenceApproachforRegulating Evolution 715 WaterQuality 598 HistoryofPondFisheriesinPoland 718 TheConstitutionandEarlyAttemptsat RationalWaterPlanning 604 Water:TheKeytoNaturalHealthAnd Healing 722 EconomicValueofWater:Estimation 605 WaterinHistory 726 WaterSupplyPlanning—Federal 612 HooverDamHistory 732 FloodControlActof1944 616 Hydropsychology 733 GreatLakesGovernors’Agreement 617 Jacob’sWell 735 U.S./CanadianBoundaryWatersTreatyandthe JaubertdePassa:TheFirstWorldHistoryof GreatLakesWaterQualityAgreement 620 GreatLakesWaterQualityInitiative 621 Irrigationin1846 736 BenjaminFranklin:FromKitetoLightning QuantitativeGroundWaterLaw 627 Rod 741 IslamicWaterLaw 634 WaterandtheHistoryofMan 745 TransboundaryWatersinLatinAmerica: Water,Bacteria,LifeonMars,andMicrobial ConflictsandCollaboration 636 Diversity 746 UnitedStates-MexicoBorderWaters: CanalsintheMekongDelta:AHistorical Conventions,Treaties,andInstitutions 643 NegotiatingbetweenAuthorityandPolluters: Overviewfrom200C.E.tothePresent 748 ConflictandWaterUseintheMiddle AnApproachtoManagingWaterQuality 647 East 753 WaterResourceOrganizations 648 BenjaminFranklin’sArmonica:AWaterMusic ABriefHistoryoftheWaterPollutionControl Instrument 758 ActintheU.S. 651 WaterTransportationOccupations 762 TheNationalPollutionDischargeElimination AConciseGlimpseofWaterintheHistoryof System 655 Photography 766 LegalProtectionforIn-streamFlow 659 WaterasaHumanRight 769 WaterQuality 664 AncientWaterandSoilConservation InterfacebetweenFederalWaterQuality EcosystemsofSriLanka 772 RegulationandStateAllocationofWater BenFranklin’sGulfStreamWeatherandSwim Quantity 671 Fins 780 RegulatoryIssuesandRemediation:Risk,Costs, WaterSymbolism 785 andBenefits 674 GordonandFranklinRiversandtheTasmanian TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct 676 WildernessWorldHeritageArea 788 RepresentingGeopoliticsof(Hydro)Bordersin TheMistakeofWaitingtoGetThirsty 789 SouthAsia 680 WaterandWell-Being 791 WaterTransfers 685 FreeFlowingWater:ASourceof ReservedWaterRightsforIndianandFederal Wisdom 793 Lands 689 TheMedicinalPropertiesoftheWatersof WetlandsPolicyintheUnitedStates:From SaratogaSprings 797 DrainagetoRestoration 690 AHistoryofHawaiianFreshwater Water History, Art, and Culture Resources 801 CuriousUsesofAgriculturalWaterinthe World 695 Volume Index missing Cumulative Index (from Volume 5) following p. 807 PREFACE Nonaturalmoleculeontheplanetismorefascinatingthan But water has a wonderful human face as well. We water.Ithasuniquepropertiesrangingfromtheunusual have reached around the world to describe the history anglesformedbetweenitstwohydrogenionsanditssingle of water and its role in the development of civilizations oxygenmolecule,tothefactthatunlikemostsubstances,it and the many beliefs held about it. As society developed, expandswhenitfreezesratherthanshrinksandreaches the distribution of water needed supervision, which lead ◦ a maximum density as a liquid 4 F above its freezing to a wide variety of water laws we have attempted to point.Theseandmanyotheraspectsofthespecialphysics categorizeanddescribeinaninterestingandmeaningful andchemistryaredescribedinthisvolume,includingthe way. impact of a wide variety of chemicals occurring in water, We are equally proud of our open-minded effort to osmosis,diffusion,hydration,isotopeexchange,alongwith describetherolethatwaterhasplayedinartandculture. thefunphysicsofthemariottebottle. We have attempted not be judgmental, with stories of Equallyfascinatingarethemanyunusualphysicaland water forms and water intelligence along with some chemicalencountersinboththeoceanandtheatmosphere. medicaltheoriesand,ofcourse,thewonderfuldescriptions Although oceanography and meteorology are frequently of early water clocks. This volume is a true intellectual consideredseparatesciencesfromhydrology,theirlimited cornucopia of water in the life of humankind on a inclusionintheWaterEncyclopediawasdeemednecessary personallevel. totellthecompletestory.Tidalchanges,benthicnutrients, Weareconfidentthatinthecomingyearsandeditions the sea floor, el nino, sea level, and ocean/climate of the Water Encyclopedia, this volume will expand with relationshipsmakeupbutafewoftheoceansfascinating more participation from individuals working in unusual stories, whereas water spouts, hurricanes, monsoons, fieldsrelatingtowater. droughts,sublimation,andbarometricefficiencyjusttouch the tip of what this volume has in store in the area of JayLehr meteorology. JackKeeley ix CONTRIBUTORS M.Abad,UniversidaddeHuelva.Avda.delasFuerzasArmadas,Huelva, Eli Dahi, Environmental Development Corporation, Søborg, Denmark, AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriodAnalysis Defluroidation EdinaraAdelaideBoss,Artur-Nogueira-SP,Brazil,Sublimation CarlW. David, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, The Joseph H. Aldstadt, III, Genetic Technologies, Inc. Testing Institute, HydroniumIon Waukesha,Wisconsin,InSituChemicalMonitoring Jana Davis, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, AlaskaBiologicalScienceCenter—U.S.GeologicalSurvey, Oceano- Maryland,MarineStockEnhancementTechniques graphicEnvironmentofGlacierBay Christine Dickenson, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Sergio Alonso, University of the Balearic, Palma de Mallorca, Spain, Florida, An Analysis of the International Maritime Organiza- RelativeHumidity tion–LondonConventionAnnualOceanDumpingReports MariedeAngelis,HumboldtStateUniversity,Arcata,California,Major Robert E. Dickinson, (from The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and IonsinSeawater Water:Dynamics,Climate,PhysicalMeteorology,WeatherSystems,and CarolynAnnKoh,ColoradoSchoolofMines,Golden,Colorado,Clathrate Measurements,Wiley2003),Overview:TheClimateSystem Hydrates,Hydration PriyankaK.Dissanayake,Moratuwa,SriLanka,EstuarianWaters Yoseph Negusse Araya, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Iver W. Duedall, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida, Kingdom,Hydrosphere An Analysis of the International Maritime Organization–London ConventionAnnualOceanDumpingReports AnnAzadpour-Keeley,NationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory, ORD,U.S.EPA,Ada,Oklahoma,WaterandtheHistoryofMan Sandra Dunbar, Napier University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom,PartitioningandBioavailability W.D. Bach,Jr., (from The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water: Dynamics, Climate, Physical Meteorology, Weather Systems, and Antonı´n Dvorˇa´k, University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic, Measurements,Wiley2003),BasicResearchforMilitaryApplications NegotiatingbetweenAuthorityandPolluters:AnApproachtoManaging WaterQuality PatrickL.Barry,NASA,WaterontheSpaceStation David R. Easterling, (from Handbook of Weather, Climate, and F.Batmanghelidj,GlobalHealthSolutions,FallsChurch,Virginia,The Water:Dynamics,Climate,PhysicalMeteorology,WeatherSystems,and MythofBadCholesterol:WhyWaterIsABetterCholesterol-Lowering Measurements,Wiley2003),ObservationsofClimateandGlobalChange Medication,Water:TheKeytoNaturalHealthAndHealing,TheMistake fromReal-TimeMeasurements ofWaitingtoGetThirsty TheodoreA.Endreny,SUNY-ESF,Syracuse,NewYork,RemoteSensing M.EricBenbow,MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,Michigan,A of Applications in Hydrology, Evaporation, Radar Use in Rainfall HistoryofHawaiianFreshwaterResources Measurements,RainfallandRunoff MikeBettwy,GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,NASA,AfricanMonsoons EnvironmentCanada, Water—Nature’sMagician DavidBiggs,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington,Canalsin TimothyErickson,NationalWeatherServiceNewOrleans/BatonRouge theMekongDelta:AHistoricalOverviewfrom200C.E.tothePresent ForecastOffice,Slidell,Louisiana,CoastalFogAlongtheNorthernGulf Jessica Black, NOAA/CREST CCNY, New York, New York, Remote ofMexico SensingofApplicationsinHydrology Kirsten Exall, NationalWaterResearchInstitute,Burlington, Ontario, PeterE. Black, SUNY ESF, Syracuse, New York, Water Resource Canada,CoagulationandFlocculation Organizations DavidL.Feldman,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,Tennessee,Water Julia´n Blasco, Institute of Marine Sciencesof Analucia, Cadiz, Spain, SupplyPlanning—Federal,WaterTransfers MarineandEstuarineMicroalgalSedimentToxicityTests MontserratFilella,UniversityofGeneva,Geneva,Switzerland,Antimony M. Bostro¨m, Linko¨ping University, Linko¨ping, Sweden, Hofmeister inAquaticSystems Effects,DissolvedGases Sylwester Furmaniak, N. Copernicus University, Torun´, Poland, Kristofor R. Brye, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, MechanismsofWaterAdsorptiononCarbons Nitrogen PiotrA.Gauden,N.CopernicusUniversity,Torun´,Poland,TheEffect Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Water ofCarbonSurfaceChemicalCompositionontheMechanismofPhenol TransportationOccupations AdsorptionfromAqueousSolutions,MechanismsofWaterAdsorption BureauofReclamation—U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior, Hoover onCarbons DamHistory Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory—NOAA, El Nin˜o: The RobertM.Burgess,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Narragansett, InterannualPredictionProblem,Hurricanes:ModelingNature’sFury, RhodeIsland,Ammonia GlobalClimateChange Albert J. Burky, University ofDayton, Dayton, Ohio, A History of AndreaK.Gerlak,ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NewYork,Wetlands HawaiianFreshwaterResources PolicyintheUnitedStates:FromDrainagetoRestoration James Butler,ClimateMonitoringandDiagnosticsLaboratory,NOAA MichaelH.Glantz,(fromTheHandbookofWeather,Climate,andWater: andUniversityScientistsStudyMethylBromideCyclingintheNorth AtmosphericChemistry,Hydrology,andSocietalImpacts,Wiley2003), Pacific ClimateandSociety BradfordButman,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,MappingtheSeaFloorofthe GlobalChangeResearchProgram—U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Flattop HistoricAreaRemediationSite(HARS)OffshoreofNewYorkCity MountainSnotelSnowpack:WaterYear2004 PietroChiavaccini,Universita´diPisa,Pisa,Italy,ShallowWaterWaves, Jyotsna Goel, Centre for Fire, Explosives, and Environmental Safety, Breakwaters Timarpur,India,IonExchangeandInorganicAdsorption G.G. Clarke, University of Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii, Climate and Water KellyGoodwin,Universityof Miami,NOAA andUniversityScientists BalanceontheIslandofHawaii StudyMethylBromideCyclingintheNorthPacific Jay Clausen, AMEC Earth and Environmental, Inc., Westford, Mas- DavidM. Gray, Mettler-Toledo Thornton Inc., Bedford, Massachusetts, sachusetts,TechnetiuminWater,BerylliuminWater Conductivity-Electric AldoConti,Frascati(RM),Italy,FloatingIce,Condensation,Desertifica- Great LakesEnvironmentalResearch Laboratory(NOAA), Tech- tion,Dew,DistilledWater,Isotopes,RainForests,DewPoint nologyDevelopment:HardwareDevelopment—MarineInstrumentation Giuseppe Cortese, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Laboratory(MIL) Research(AWI),Bremerhaven,Germany,Seawater TemperatureEsti- SethI.Gutman,NOAAForecastSystemsLaboratory,Ground-BasedGPS matesinPaleoceanography MeteorologyatFSL SaraCotton,UniversityofMiami,NOAAandUniversityScientistsStudy JanuszGuziur,UniversityofWarmiaandMazuryinOlsztyn,Olsztyn, MethylBromideCyclingintheNorthPacific Poland,HistoryofPondFisheriesinPoland L.M. Ca´ceres, Universidadde Huelva. Avda. de las FuerzasArmadas, DavidHaley,Picacadilly,Ulverston,Cumbria,UnitedKingdom,Water Huelva,AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriodAnalysis andWell-Being,Evolution xi
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