Water and Climate Change: Sustainable Development, Environmental and Policy Issues

461 Pages·2022·18.556 MB·English

by  Trevor M. Letcher

Water and Climate Change
Water and Climate Change
Sustainable Development, Environmental
and Policy Issues
Edited by
Trevor M. Letcher
School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa
Elsevier
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Contents
List of contributors..............................................................................................xvii
Preface.................................................................................................................xix
Section A Introduction..................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1:Introduction: water, the vital chemical.................................................... 3
Trevor M. Letcher
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................3
1.2 The unique chemical properties of water...............................................................4
1.2.1 The polar nature of water............................................................................4
1.2.2 The high enthalpy of vaporization of water................................................4
1.2.3 The high heat capacity of water..................................................................5
1.2.4 The anomalous density of frozen water.......................................................5
1.2.5 Water, the “universal” solvent....................................................................6
1.2.6 Acid(cid:1)base property....................................................................................7
1.2.7 High surface tension, low viscosity, and cohesive and adhesive
properties....................................................................................................7
1.3 Water and climate change......................................................................................8
1.4 The origin of water on Earth..................................................................................9
1.4.1 The water cycle...........................................................................................9
1.5 The scarcity of water...........................................................................................10
1.6 Conclusions.........................................................................................................10
References...................................................................................................................10
Chapter 2:The root causes of climate change and the role played by water............. 13
Trevor M. Letcher
2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................13
v
vi Contents
2.2 Water and CO and the greenhouse effect...........................................................14
2
2.3 The main greenhouse gases of anthropogenic origin............................................16
2.4 Feedback mechanisms and tipping points............................................................18
2.5 Where are we in solving the problem of global heating?.....................................19
2.6 Solutions..............................................................................................................22
2.7 Conclusion...........................................................................................................25
References...................................................................................................................25
Chapter 3:Water resource planning and climate change........................................ 27
Rabee Rustum, Adebayo J. Adeloye and Quan Dau
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................27
3.2 Climate change and water budget components.....................................................28
3.3 Water reservoirs...................................................................................................29
3.3.1 Indices of reservoir performance...............................................................30
3.3.2 Reservoir operation...................................................................................31
3.3.3 Climate change effect on reservoir performance in the Indus Basin..........32
3.4 Conclusions.........................................................................................................38
References...................................................................................................................38
Chapter 4:Potential impacts of climate change on biogeochemical cycling................ 41
Daniel A. Vallero
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................41
4.2 Thermodynamics of cycling.................................................................................42
4.3 Partitioning..........................................................................................................45
4.3.1 Dissolution................................................................................................45
4.3.2 Sorption....................................................................................................47
4.4 Biochemodynamics..............................................................................................49
4.5 Biogeochemistry of oxygen in water....................................................................55
4.6 The carbon cycle and greenhouse effect..............................................................57
4.7 Conclusions.........................................................................................................59
References...................................................................................................................59
Further reading.............................................................................................................62
Section B Sustainable development and environmental issues.................. 63
Chapter 5:Water quality engineering: physical, chemical, and biological
treatment for a sustainable future ....................................................... 65
Daniel A. Vallero
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................65
Contents vii
5.2 Water quality.....................................................................................................66
5.3 Chemical processes............................................................................................69
5.4 Wastewater treatment.........................................................................................73
5.5 Water treatment to manage risks........................................................................79
5.6 Disposal of sludge..............................................................................................80
5.7 Mixed reactors...................................................................................................82
5.8 Aerobic reactors.................................................................................................83
5.9 Anaerobic reactors.............................................................................................86
5.10 Treating contaminated ground water..................................................................89
5.11 Conclusions.......................................................................................................92
References...................................................................................................................92
Chapter 6:Urban water supplies in developing countries with a focus on
climate change.................................................................................... 95
Josephine Treacy
6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................95
6.2 Urbanization in developing countries...................................................................97
6.3 Urban water supplies...........................................................................................97
6.3.1 Source waters............................................................................................99
6.3.2 Other water sources innovative needs.....................................................100
6.3.3 Urban water supplies as a resource.........................................................101
6.3.4 Centralized and noncentralized water supplies........................................101
6.4 Climate change challenges and urban waters.....................................................102
6.4.1 Water Supplies and demand....................................................................103
6.5 Waste management and climate change and its impact on urban water.............104
6.6 Opportunities and global initiatives....................................................................104
6.6.1 Adaptation and mitigation.......................................................................105
6.6.2 Understanding the water baseline............................................................105
6.6.3 Environmental impact modeling risk......................................................105
6.7 Water security....................................................................................................106
6.7.1 Policy makers.........................................................................................106
6.8 Conclusions.......................................................................................................107
References.................................................................................................................109
Further reading...........................................................................................................112
Chapter 7: Water purity and sustainable water treatment systems for
developing countries...........................................................................115
Joanne Mac Mahon
7.1 Introduction: access to clean water in developing countries...............................115
viii Contents
7.2 Environmental challenges to water purity in developing countries.....................118
7.3 WHO guidelines for water purity.......................................................................120
7.3.1 Microbial guidelines...............................................................................120
7.3.2 Chemical guidelines................................................................................121
7.3.3 Radiological guidelines...........................................................................122
7.3.4 Acceptability: taste, odor, appearance.....................................................122
7.3.5 Other considerations...............................................................................122
7.4 Water supply sources used in developing countries...........................................123
7.5 Water treatment systems used in developing countries......................................124
7.5.1 Centralized water treatment systems.......................................................124
7.5.2 Decentralized water treatment systems....................................................126
7.5.3 Water Safety Plans..................................................................................126
7.5.4 Commonly used water treatment methods...............................................128
7.5.5 Water storage..........................................................................................132
7.6 Sustainable water management systems.............................................................133
7.7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................135
References.................................................................................................................136
Chapter 8:Water purification techniques for the developing world........................145
Aniruddha B. Pandit and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
8.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................145
8.2 Water purification methodologies....................................................................147
8.3 Solar treatment and its intensification..............................................................147
8.4 Water disinfection by boiling...........................................................................150
8.5 Chemical treatment..........................................................................................152
8.6 Filtration techniques.........................................................................................154
8.6.1 Traditional filtration methods................................................................154
8.6.2 Recent advances/modifications in traditional filtration methods............156
8.6.3 Hybrid filtration methods......................................................................158
8.7 Natural treatment methods...............................................................................159
8.8 Cavitation-based water hand pumps.................................................................160
8.9 Sustainable disinfection of harvested rainwater................................................163
8.10 Recent research on emerging methods.............................................................166
8.10.1 Filtration.............................................................................................166
8.10.2 Solar disinfection................................................................................166
8.10.3 Hybrid techniques...............................................................................167
8.11 Impact of Covid 19 pandemic on the water sector in developing countries......168
8.12 Comparison of various purification techniques................................................170
8.13 Conclusions.....................................................................................................173
Contents ix
8.14 Recommendations for future work...................................................................174
References.................................................................................................................174
Chapter 9:Plastic pollution in waterways and in the oceans..................................179
Lei Mai, Hui He and Eddy Y. Zeng
9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................179
9.2 Global marine plastic pollution..........................................................................180
9.2.1 Sources of marine plastic debris..............................................................180
9.2.2 Distribution of microplastics in the marine environment.........................182
9.3 Plastic pollution in rivers...................................................................................183
9.3.1 Distribution of plastics in global rivers...................................................183
9.3.2 Riverine transport of microplastics to coastal oceans/seas.......................187
9.4 Riverine plastic outflows...................................................................................188
9.4.1 Field measured riverine microplastic outflows........................................188
9.4.2 Comparison of riverine plastic outflows between measurements
and model estimates................................................................................190
References.................................................................................................................192
Chapter 10: Desalination and sustainability........................................................197
Anju Vijayan Nair and Veera Gnaneswar Gude
10.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................197
10.2 Description of desalination processes...............................................................198
10.2.1 Solar stills...........................................................................................198
10.2.2 Multi-stage flash desalination..............................................................199
10.2.3 Multi-effect distillation.......................................................................199
10.2.4 Vapor compression.............................................................................199
10.2.5 Energy efficiency of thermal desalination...........................................200
10.2.6 Reverse osmosis..................................................................................200
10.2.7 Membrane distillation.........................................................................201
10.3 Desalination and sustainability.........................................................................203
10.3.1 Environmental footprint......................................................................203
10.3.2 Economics of desalination..................................................................205
10.3.3 Social aspects of desalination..............................................................206
10.4 Renewable energy integration..........................................................................207
10.4.1 Selection process of desalination process............................................209
10.5 Future of sustainable desalination....................................................................210
10.5.1 Desalination at household level...........................................................210
10.5.2 Desalination at community or municipal scale....................................211
References.................................................................................................................212
x Contents
Chapter 11: Groundwater sustainability in a digital world....................................215
Ahmed S. Elshall, Ming Ye and Yongshan Wan
11.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................215
11.2 Groundwater sustainability...............................................................................217
11.3 Digital groundwater.........................................................................................220
11.4 Internet of Things(cid:1)based data collection.........................................................221
11.5 Web-based data sharing...................................................................................222
11.6 Workflow for data processing..........................................................................225
11.7 Scenarios for data usage..................................................................................228
11.8 Perspectives of web-based groundwater platforms...........................................230
11.9 Disclaimer........................................................................................................233
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................233
References.................................................................................................................234
Chapter 12: Economics of water productivity and scarcity in
irrigated agriculture........................................................................241
James F. Booker
12.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................241
12.2 Productivity concepts as indicators..................................................................243
12.3 Production and scarcity in economics..............................................................248
12.4 Constructing water productivity indicators: physical and economic
considerations..................................................................................................249
12.4.1 Physical considerations.......................................................................250
12.4.2 Economic considerations.....................................................................251
12.4.3 Net water productivity........................................................................252
12.5 Trends in water productivity............................................................................253
12.5.1 Physical and economic water productivity trends................................253
12.5.2 Economic net water productivity trends: value added,
optimization, and hydroeconomic models...........................................254
12.5.3 Other economic approaches to water productivity and efficiency........256
12.6 Conclusions.....................................................................................................257
References.................................................................................................................258
Chapter 13: Potential of municipal wastewater for resource recovery and reuse....263
Manzoor Qadir
13.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................263
13.2 Wastewater as a water source..........................................................................264
13.3 Wastewater as a nutrient source.......................................................................265