Wastewater Re-use Stormwater Management eh tdna adn emgrAo free RtlaaWnoitaN .F.J .J / samohT .E.J / osobmoG .A.V / revilO eihctiR CSIRO Land and Water Research Position Paper 1 Wastewater Re-use, Stormwater Management, and the National Water Reform Agenda Report to the Sustainable Land and Water Resources Management Committee and to the Council of Australian Governments National Water Reform Task Force J.F. Thomas, J. Gomboso, J.E. Oliver, and V.A. Ritchie CSIRO Land and Water Research Position Paper 1 1997 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Entry Wastewater re-use, stormwater management, and the national water reform agenda : report to the Sustainable Land and Water Resources Management Committee and to the Council of Australian Governments National Water Reform Task Force. Bibliography. ISBN 0 643 06050 2. 1. Wastewater re-use – Australia. 2. Water resources development – Australia. 3. Storm sewers – Australia. I. Thomas, John F. II. CSIRO. Land and water. III. Sustainable Land and Water Resources Management Committee. IV. Council of Australian Governments. National Water Reform Task Force. (Series : Research position paper ; 1). 628.162 Cover photograph by Bill van Aken, CSIRO Land and Water Publication enquiries to: Communication Officer CSIRO Land and Water Canberra Laboratory Black Mountain, ACT 2601 Australia email: [email protected] ISSN 1329-5713 Preface IN June 1993, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) requested that a Working Group of officials, under an independent chair, prepare a strategic framework for efficient and sustainable reform of the water industry, having regard for the technical and policy diversity existing across the States and Territories of Australia. In February 1994, COAG participants committed their governments to the Working Group’s recommendations with minor detailed modifications and, in September 1996, ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resources Management Council of Australia and New Zealand) published Generic National Milestones for Actions to Implement the Strategic Framework for Water Reform. As well as highlighting the need for reforms directed at improving the economic efficiency of the water industry, the Working Group drew attention to widespread natural resource degradation resulting from current water allocation and management, and urged all jurisdictions to arrest this process. The Working Group recommended that the strategic framework for reform should include environmentally sustainable management of wastewater and stormwater from metropolitan and town water services. This is one of a series of studies coordinated by the Sub-committee on Water Resources of ARMCANZ as a response to the issues raised by the Strategic Framework for Water Reform, 1994. The Terms of Reference are to: • Examine the ramifications of making greater use of wastewater in urban areas, and strategies for handling stormwater, including its use, and • Review current approaches to town wastewater and sewage disposal to sensitive environ- ments, noting that action is underway to reduce accessions to watercourses from key centres on the Darling River system. The first part of the Terms of Reference was undertaken in conjunction with the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). The second part was considered as a part of the development of the National Water Quality Management Strategy, also in conjunction with ANZECC. In developing the report, reference has also been made to the Ministerial Council for Planning, Housing and Local Government (MCPHLG). The Study was undertaken under the supervision of a Steering Committee comprising: David Mittelheuser, Department of Land and Water Conservation, New South Wales (Chairman) Terry Scott, Melbourne Water Alan Thomas, Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency Volker Aeukens, Commonwealth Department of Primary Industry and Energy Jonathan Thomas (Project Leader) The CSIRO team was: Jonathon F. Thomas (Project Leader) Jeanette Gomboso Janice E. Oliver Veronica A. Ritchie. A description of the work program is given in Appendix A. Terry Scott of Melbourne Water coordinated the National Effluent Re-use Survey reported in the study. This report addresses issues raised by the policy principles of the COAG Water Reform Agenda in relation to the re-use of wastewater, improved urban stormwater management, and adoption of superior practices regarding disposal to sensitive environments. It is particularly concerned with the development of recommendations regarding: • current and potential practices • technical obstacles and opportunities • environmental and public health constraints • economic and incentive structures • the regulatory environment • the role of community involvement • catchment-based resource management, and • development of institutional roles and responsibilities. The layout of the report follows the three topics which were addressed in meeting the terms of reference: • Part 1 outlines a number of strategic issues for the water sector that follow from the National Water Reform Agenda, and outlines the problems encountered with discharges to sensitive environments • Part II considers re-use of wastewaters • Part III deals with stormwater management. Following submission of this report as a draft in February 1996, a Policy Discussion Paper was coordinated by the Commonwealth Department of Primary Industries and Energy for consideration by ARMCANZ. However, the contents and conclusions of this report, are the responsibility of CSIRO, and are not necessarily endorsed by ARMCANZ, or the Department of Primary Industries and Energy. Jonathon F. Thomas December 1996 Acknowledgements The Project Leader thanks all members of the Study Steering Committee: David Mittelheuser, the Chairman, for his unstinting support and enthusiasm; Volker Aeukens, for his masterly guidance through ARMCANZ processes; Dr Alan Thomas, for his advice on ANZECC and MCPHLG linkages; and Terry Scott, who was responsible for the conduct of the National Effluent Re-use Survey. Many others contributed essential information and constructive ideas, including Jeff Brown, Richard Clark, Pat Condina, Wally Fink, Don Gardiner, Peter Hoey, Fred King, Ian lawrence, Cary Reynolds, Des Semple, and Ivan Unkovitch. The assistance of Phillipa Wittenoom with literature review is gratefully acknowledged. Finally the authors thank the external referees for their efforts in reviewing the final draft of this report. Nevertheless, CSIRO assumes all responsibility for the contents of the report. Jonathon F. Thomas CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT i B. ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND i Wastewater and Stormwater in the Urban Water Cycle i Impacts of Wastewater and Stormwater Discharges on Receiving Waters iii C. RE-USE OF WASTEWATERS vi Potential for Re-Use vi Planned Re-Use viii Implications for the COAG National Water Reform Agenda ix D. IMPROVING STORMWATER MANAGEMENT xi Management Objectives xi Management Practices xii Implications for the COAG National Water Reform Agenda xii E. RESEARCH NEEDS xv PART I: BACKGROUND 1 1. COAG’S STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 3 2. ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL BACKGROUND 3 2.1 Demand of Urban Areas on the Water Resource Error! Bookmark not defined.3 2.2 Costs 4 2.3 Externalities 5 2.4 Technical Change 5 3. DISCHARGE OF WASTEWATERS TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 7 3.1 Sensitive Marine Environments – Definition 7 3.2 Overview of Issues 7 3.3 Projected Discharges of Wastewaters to Marine Environments 8 3.4 Coastal Water Quality Protection Policies 10 4. DISCHARGE OF WASTEWATERS TO INLAND/FRESH WATERS 12 4.1 Overview 12 4.2 Murray-Darling Basin 13 4.3 Hawkesbury-Nepean River Basin 13 4.4 Projected Discharges 14 5. INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 16 5.1 Overview 16 5.2 Institutional Roles and Responsibilities for Stormwater Management 16 5.3 The National Water Quality Management Strategy 17 PART II: RE-USE OF WASTEWATERS 19 6. REASONS FOR RE-USE 21 6.1 Supplementary Supply 21 6.2 Resource Management 22 6.3 Cost Minimisation 22 6.4 Environmental Protection 22 6.5 Political/Institutional Constraints 22 7. TREATMENT METHODS 24 8. USES FOR RECLAIMED WATER 29 8.1 Irrigation of Woodlots, Crops and Pastures 30 8.2 Irrigation of Landscape and Recreational Areas 31 8.3 Non-Potable Residential Re-use 32 8.4 Potable Re-use 35 8.5 Industrial/Commercial Re-use 36 8.6 Re-use In Groundwater Systems 37 8.7 Stormwater Re-use 38 8.8 Sludge Re-use 39 8.9 Conclusions 40 9. PUBLIC ACCEPTABILITY AND HEALTH ISSUES 40 9.1 Public Acceptability of Re-use 40 9.2 Known Public Health Impacts of Re-use Projects 41 9.3 Role of Re-use Guidelines and of the Regulator 43 9.4 Conclusions on Public Health and Acceptability 44 10. ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER RE-USE 45 10.1 Engineering Costs 45 10.2 Environmental Economic Analysis of Wastewater Re-use Projects 48 10.3 Cost of Nutrient Removal 54 10.4 Conclusion 55 11. CURRENT AND PLANNED RE-USE OF TREATED SEWAGE IN AUSTRALIA 57 11.1 Sources Of Data 57 11.2 Australian Capital Territory 58 11.3 New South Wales 59 11.4 Northern Territory 62 11.5 Queensland 63 11.6 South Australia 65 11.7 Tasmania 68 11.8 Victoria 70 11.9 Western Australia 72 11.10 National Outlook For Re-use 75 12. WASTEWATER RE-USE AND THE NATIONAL WATER REFORM AGENDA 86 12.1 Initiation of Re-use Projects 86 12.2 Re-use and Contestable Markets 87 12.3 Pricing of Reclaimed Water and its Alternatives 88 12.4 Pricing of Water Utility Inputs 88 12.5 Regulation 89 12.6 Public Acceptability 90 12.7 Re-use Guidelines 91 PART III: STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 93 13. OVERVIEW 95 13.1 Definitions 95 13.2 Institutional Context 95 13.3 Stormwater Quantity and Quality 95 13.4 Stormwater Systems in Australia and Overseas 96 14. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF STORMWATER DISCHARGES 97 14.1 International Experience 97 14.2 Environmental Impacts of Urban Stormwater Discharges in Australia 98 15. CHANGING OBJECTIVES OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 101 16. STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 102 16.1 Overview of Practices 102 16.2 Structural In-line Controls 103 16.3 Structural Source Controls 105 16.4 Non-structural Source Controls 108 16.5 Combined Sewer Overflows 109 16.6 Summary: Management Approaches 112 17. PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 113 17.1 International Experience 113 17.2 CSIRO Study 114 18. ECONOMICS OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 116 18.1 Magnitude of Stormwater Pollution Abatement Costs 116 18.2 Applying Economic Principles to the Problem of Stormwater Management 119 18.3 Financing Stormwater Management Programs 122 18.4 Conclusions 123 19. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 123 19.1 COAG’s Institutional Principles for Water Resources Management 124 19.2 Institutional Responses in Other Countries 125 19.3 Institutional Arrangements in Australia 129 19.4 Conclusion 136 20. RESEARCH NEEDS 138 21. BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 APPENDICES A. STUDY WORK PROGRAM B. WASTEWATER DISPOSAL PRACTICES IN AUSTRALIA C. WASTEWATER RE-USE PRACTICES IN AUSTRALIA, WITH SOME INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES D. NATIONAL EFFLUENT RE-USE SURVEY, 1994 QUESTIONNAIRE LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES GLOSSARY OF TERMS ACRONYMS
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