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War War A Genealogy of Western Ideas and Practices BEATRICE HEUSER 1 3 GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries ©BeatriceHeuser2022 Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted Impression:1 Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Dataavailable LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2021952417 ISBN978–0–19–879689–3 DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198796893.001.0001 Printedandboundby CPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythirdpartywebsitereferencedinthiswork. InMemoryof TomaszCreffield 16August1995–6February2020 Acknowledgements ItiswithgreatgratitudethatIacknowledgethehelpIhavehadwiththisendeavour from many sides. This includes the support of the American Smith Richardson Foundation and the Foreign Policy Research Institute in Pennsylvania, USA. It includesmycolleaguesatthe‘Laboratory of Excellence’(Labex) ‘Writinga new HistoryofEurope’,runfromtheSorbonneinParis,mycolleaguesatSciencesPo’ ParisandReimsandtomycolleaguesattheUniversityParisIIAssaswithwhomI hadmanyveryhelpfulexchangesonthisandrelatedsubjects.Myteachingatthe SciencesPo’ParisasincumbentoftheVincentWrightChairatinthefirstsemester of2018andafewclassesIgaveatAssashelpedmecrystallizesomeofmyconfused thoughts,asdidmyteachinginthefollowingyearsattheUniversityofGlasgow. FortheirsupportinsecuringmylinkstoSciencesPo’andParisIIPanthéon-Assas, IamparticularlygratefultoProfessorsGuillaumePiketty,Jean-VincentHoleindre andJulianFernandez.IalsoowethankstotheGermanHistoricalInstituteinParis underThomasMaissenandStefanMartenswithitssplendidlibrary,itssupportfor theLabexanditsgeneroushospitalitytowardsvisitingresearcherslikemyself. Particular thanks are due to Professors Michael Whitby, Stephen Neff, David Parrott,StigFo¨rsterandAlanForrest,andDrGeorgiosChatzeliswhokindlyre- viewedtheentirescriptformeandspottedmanyanerror.Myadmirationfortheir enormouseruditionknowsnobounds. IalsoowethankstoProfessorsCianO’DriscollandJohnFrance,andDrRoel Konijnendijkforvaluablethoughtsandcorrections,andtoDrEadoHecht,Profes- sorYakovBen-Haim,DrAnne-MarieThévenot-Werner,HowardBody,Colonel Andrew Dennis, Messrs Mark Waring and Paul Strong, Dr Olaf Theile, Wing Commander Harold Simpson, Ronald Poetiray, Professor Robin Geiss, Mr Paul Strong, Dr Asli Özcelik Olcay, Dr Saskia Millmann, Dr Joanna Wilson, Messrs Theodoros Kaloudiotis and Pelayo Fernández Garc´ıa, and Professor Christian Tamsforindividualcorrections,clarifications,suggestionsandexplanations. IamprofoundlygratefultoDominicByattofOxfordUniversityPressforthe patience with which he accepted requests for extensions and exceeding of word limits. Contents Author’sNote xii 1 Introduction 1 Ideas 1 PracticeandtheLargerCulturalContext 3 TheGenealogyof‘Western’Ideas 4 SixSourcesofThinkingaboutWar 5 Judaeo-ChristianContradictionsandScholarship 6 HowIdeasInteractwithReality 8 TheoryandPractice 9 Sources 10 TerminologyandDefinitionofWar 12 EconomicWarfare—Sanctions,Blockades 13 TheStructureofThisBook 15 2 WarinEurope:AShortTypologicalSurvey 17 EnduringandRecurrentPatternsinWarfare 17 RaidsandMassacres 17 SiegeWarfare 21 Battle 23 ConductingBusiness:Epicheirein 25 Wars,Campaigns,Operations 26 ScaleandIntensity 27 MajorWarsversusSmallWars 27 SmallWarwithinMajorWar 29 FromSmallWartoIrregularWar 30 CriminalActivitiesand‘Hybrid’Warfare 31 MajorChangesinWarfare 34 ACavalryRevolution? 34 AsymmetricWars:EuropeansversusTurks 36 AnInfantryRevolution? 38 AGunpowder“Revolution”? 39 TheMythof‘Limited’CabinetWars 40 Non-Technology-DrivenRevolution:theFrenchWars, 1792–1815 42 TotalWar,GenocideandDemocide 44 TheNuclearRevolution 53 TotalWarvsConventionalWar 54 viii contents ChangeandContinuity 56 ‘New’Wars… 56 …andRecurrentPatterns 58 QuantitativeDifferences 60 Conclusions 64 3 Ethical,Political,andLegalConceptsofWar 67 EthicalConceptualizationofWar 67 WarasEvil 67 WarasCondonableasaLesserEvil 70 JihadandCrusade:WarCommandedbyGod 72 WarasGood:ATonicAgainstDecadenceandPromoterof Progress 75 PoliticalConceptualizationsofWar 81 PolemosorStasis,PublicversusPrivateorCivilWar 81 FromSovereignPrincetoState-CentricDefinitionsofWar 91 LegalConceptualizationsofWar 106 FromInter-State‘War’to‘ArmedConflict’ 106 WarasaLegalConditionorstate 110 TheDeclarationofWar 112 JudiciumBelli:WarasanOrdeal,inLieuofaTrial 114 WarOutlawed 121 ThestateofArmedConflict 123 Conclusions 125 4 RootCausesandDriversofWar 127 FlawedNature 128 FlawedHumanNature 129 SpecificVices:Cupidity,Anger,Pride,andVanity 133 AmbitionsofPrinces 135 FlawedPolity 136 FlawedInter-PolitySystem 141 FlawedValuesandIdeologies 145 Conclusions 147 5 JustWarTraditions 150 TheJustWarCriteria 150 LegitimateAuthority 150 Self-Defence 153 MilitaryInterventionsinThird-PartyConflicts 155 PeaceastheOnlyLegitimateAimofaJustWar 164 UlcisciIniurias:RestorationorRetribution? 165 Pre-emptionandPrevention 168 PunishmentandCorrectionasPurposesofWar? 169 contents ix LastResort,Proportionality,Moderation,andFairProspectof Success 173 ExpansionismJustified;TheQuestforBooty 175 FreedomofTradeDefended 182 Insurgencies:JustWarAgainstone’sGovernment? 183 JustCausesonBothSides? 187 JustWarYieldstoRaisond’Etat andNationalInterest, 1796–1919 188 National-SocialismastheTotalNegationofJustWarPrinciples 190 TheRevivaloftheJustWarTradition,1919– 191 TheCostofUpholdingtheRules-BasedInternationalOrder 192 6 ProfessedReasonsforGoingtoWarandWarAims 194 WarManifestosandOtherProfessionsofWarAims 199 UniversalMonarchyversusLiberty 204 Sovereignty 206 BalanceofPower 208 TheQuestfor‘NaturalFrontiers’ 212 ColourfulPretexts 213 Conclusions 216 7 WhoFights? 218 TotalDefenceandRaidingParties 218 FarmingorMilitaryService? 219 ProfessionalSoldiersinAntiquity 222 TheWestAfterRome:BacktotheFuture 224 Limitanei,Akritai,Gazi,andGrenzer 224 AReturntoTotalDefenceandRaids 225 ProfessionalSoldierswereMercenaries 227 SpecialandIrregularForces 231 TheReality:MixedForces 232 TheReturnofMercenaries:PrivateMilitaryCompanies 234 TheIdealandMythoftheCitizen-Soldier 236 EuropeanArmiessince1815:betweenConscriptionand All-VolunteerForces 241 TheFearoftheUndisciplinedMasses 247 Guerrilleros—Rebels,Brigands,Insurgents 252 ExcludedfromFighting 256 WomenintheArmedForces 258 Conclusions 261 8 WhoistheEnemy? 263 TheEnemyDefinedbyReligion/Nation/Race/Class 264 God’sFoes 264 Barbarians,Idolators,andHeretics 265