Walden Two: The Morality of Anarchy

14 Pages·2009·2.33 MB·English

The Behavior Analyst 1987, 10, 147-160 No. 2 (Fall)
Walden Two: The Morality of Anarchy
Evalyn F. Segal
San Diego State University
Theutopianlabelisoftenpinnedoncallsforcomprehensivechangeasameansofdismissingthemfrom
serious consideration.... [S]ocial orderscome andgo, andthosewho indulgein utopian thinkingmay
be more prepared for ... the inevitability ofwidespread societal transformation.... Keepingutopia in
mindcan prevent oursettlingforminorreformswhen more significantchangemightbepossible. (Fox,
1985, p. 55)
When ... Icalled myselfabenign anarchist ... someone saidthatthat wasnotlike thedictatorship
of Walden Tvo. But Walden Two was anarchistic.... The functions delegated to [authority figures] in
the world at large were performed by the people themselves through face-to-face commendation and
censure. (Skinner, 1983, p. 426, emphasis his)
Theissueforanarchists isnotwhetherthere shouldbe structureororder, butwhatkindthereshould
be and what its sources ought to be. The individual or group which has sufficient liberty to be self-
regulatingwill havethehighestdegreeoforder; theimpositionoforderfromaboveandoutsideinduces
resentmentandrebellionwhereitdoesnotencouragechildlikedependenceandimpotence,andsobecomes
a force fordisorder. (Barclay, 1982, p. 17)
Key words: Walden Two, utopias, communitarian movement, socialengineering
Avision ofahuman futurecannotdowithoutthe propheticgraspoftheneedforsmallscale
indispensable supportofscientificexpertise, butit (Schumacher, 1973); nostalgia for by-
encompasses morethan therealm ofscience. The
gonetimeswhenpeoplelivedintribesor
utopiawithout science is empty, but sciencewith-
close-knit agrarian communities and
out utopiais blind. (Plattel, 1972, p. 97)
sharedsimple, self-evidentvalues; asyn-
[Thereisa] common recognitionamongphilos- thesisofJudeo-Christian, Confucian, and
ophersthatfactscannotproduceavalue.Thinking
behaviorist ethics (see Waller, 1982); a
otherwisehasbeencalled"thenaturalisticfallacy."
... A fact only becomes a value when someone sales pitch for behavioral technology; a
approves ofthat fact.... Fully grasping the argu- mad scientist's plot against human free-
ment concerning the naturalistic fallacy leads one dom; or a symptom of Skinner's com-
tothebasicquestionofresearchonmortality:Which pulsion, shared with G. B. Shaw, to
naturalistic fallacy should and must we commit?
"dream of things that never were, and
(Haan, 1982, pp. 1096-1097, emphasis hers)
ask why not?"
IfIamnotformyself, whoshouldbeforme?If Skinner was not the first psychologist
I am only formyself, whatam I?(The Talmud)
to succumb to asking "Why not?" Mor-
WhatarewetomakeofB. F. Skinner's awski (1982) has uncovered four earlier
utopianwork, Walden Two, publishedin utopiasdreamtbywell-knowntwentieth-
1948? It can be read as the ravings ofa century psychologists. William Mc-
self-styled benign anarchist; a blueprint Dougall (1921) wrote one urging world
for a sane, just, and peaceful world; a domination by a genetic elite; Hugo
critique ofpost-industrial civilization; a Munsterberg (1916)wrote one urgingin-
ternational pacifism; John B. Watson
(1929) wrote one; and G. Stanley Hall
An earlier version (Segal, 1984) of this article published a utopian novella called "The
appeared in the proceedings (Keehn, 1984) ofa Fall ofAtlantis" (Hall, 1920). Onemight
conference organized by J. D. Keehn to usher in
1984. (Permission to reprint has been granted by expectWatson'sutopiatoprefigureSkin-
the copyright holder, Master Press, Atkinson Col- ner's inasmuch as both are behaviorists,
lege,YorkUniversity,Toronto,OntarioM3J2R7.) butin Morawski's account, Hallemerges
I thank Peter Keehn for this advice and support. as a nearer relation.
Send reprint requests to E. F. Segal, Psychology
G. S. Hall'sutopianmoralitytale, "The
Department, San Diego State University, San Di-
egoCA 92182-0350. Fall ofAtlantis," concerned the tension
147
148 EVALYN F. SEGAL
between selfish individualism andsupra- We need not fear International Skinner-
individual and future-oriented values. ianism'sbecomingathreattohumansur-
Here is Morawski's (1982) account of vival; the real threats lie in the current
Hall's "Fall ofAtlantis": world "order." (See Schell, 1982, for an
eloquent summary ofour predicament.)
Atlanteancitizenssubordinatedindividualtosocial
desiresandcelebratedaperceptionofbeing'uniquely
THE DIALECTIC OF
one with all Nature....' The fall ofAtlantis was
notcataclysmic, but ratheragradual degeneration MORALITY
initiatedbyforcesofindividualismandbyphysical
Walden Twoshouldbereadalongwith
changes in theenvironment....
InAtlantisresearch wastheultimateexpression Skinner's other major works on the hu-
ofthe beliefin human improvement. And ofall man condition, Science andHuman Be-
scientific endeavors, psychology represented the havior (1953) and Beyond Freedom and
most valuable.... [It] strove chiefly to give self-
Dignity(1971). Togetherthesethreeform
knowledgeand self-control....
Jurisprudence wasdesignedthrough research on an extended treatise on morality.
human nature and operated with two rules: the It is evident that humans need one
pleasureandpainprinciplesandtheassessmentof another;wearetoopunytosurvivealone,
the social value ofindividualactions....
at least in recognizably human form. As
Thefall had resultedpartlyfrom thepsycholog-
ical flawsofindividualism andselfishness, andthe Hobbes (1651/1939) told us three cen-
revered field of psychology did not escape these turies ago, outside the support and pro-
faults.... The commercial preoccupations ofsci- tectionofthegroup, lifeis"nasty,brutish
entistssignalledtheeventualdemiseofthescientific
and short."' Oras Harry Morgan said in
spirit. (Morawski, 1982, p. 1094)
the closingpages ofHerningway's (1937)
If selfish individualism and commer- novel, ToHaveandHaveNot, "No mat-
cialism do notcorrupt utopiafrom with- terhow, a man alone ain'tgot no bloody
in, the same vices, in the form ofimpe- fucking chance."
rialistic capitalism, will destroy it from InagreementwithHallandothermor-
without. That is the message of Walden alists, Skinner has argued that our de-
Tres, aruefulLatin-American novellaby pendenceononeanothernotonlyobliges
a prominent Colombian behavior ana- us to live in social groups-it also obli-
lyst, Ruben Ardila (1979). In Ardila's gates us to put the group's survival first.
fantasy,atinyCentralAmericanstateen- Not because thegroup has value in itself
gages the services of the best behavior but because it is the sine qua non ofthe
analysts to help turn the tropical land satisfaction ofour individual needs and
into a "socialist-humanist" paradise. the realization ofour individual aspira-
Progress is sorapidandpeaceful thatthe tions.
rulingjunta dismantles the army and as- But ifself-interest requires the group,
signs its career officers to useful work. In thegroupalsogives risetothemoral and
time,however,theUnitedStatesdoesthe psychologicaltensionsFreud(1930/1962)
inevitable. Alarmed at the threat "so- described in Civilization andIts Discon-
cialist-humanism" may pose to U.S. in- tents. Because the self-interests of indi-
vestments, the U.S. sends inthe Marines viduals are bound to conflict with each
underpretext of"defending human free- other and with the interests ofthe group
dom." The socialist nations, including
Cuba, watch from the sidelines, making
no move to aid their newest sibling, for 'This passage is worth quoting in full: "What-
the beleaguered little land had commit- soever . . . is consequent to a time ofwar ... the
ted the sin of going its own behavior- same is consequent to the time, wherein men live
withoutothersecuritythanwhattheirownstrength
analytic way, "without Marx or Jesus,
andtheirowninvention shallfurnishthemwithal.
without Mao orLenin" (Ardila, 1979, p. Insuchcondition thereisnoplaceforindustry...
180). no navigation ... no knowledge ofthe face ofthe
Ardila's parable serves to remind us earth; no account oftime; no arts; no letters; no
that The Kingdom of Skinner will not society; and which is worst ofall, continual fear,
and danger ofviolent death; and the life ofman,
arrive anytime soon, iffor no otherrea-
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" (Hobbes,
son than that it goes against Realpolitik. 1651/1939, p. 161).
WALDEN TWO 149
as a whole, individuals must compro- rying capacity of the commons is ex-
mise some oftheir self-interest. How to ceeded. Selfish individualism ruins the
do this equitably is the problem ofhu- commons, and in the end, all lose.
man morality. Hardin (1978) argues:
In her thoughtful essay on the moral
grounds of social science, Haan (1982) Even ifan individual fully perceives the ultimate
drawsaparallelbetweenhumanmorality consequences ofhis actions he is mostunlikely to
and science. Consensual truth, she says, act in any other way, for he cannot count on the
restrainthisconsciencemightdictatebeingmatched
is the goal ofscience; consensual equity, bya similarrestraint on the part ofallthe others.
the goal of mortality. Both are reached . . .Tragedyisthepriceoffreedominthecommons.
by similardialectic methods. Haanchar- Only by changing to some other system . ... can
acterizesthedialecticofscienceas"even- ruinbeaverted.Inotherwords,inacrowdedworld
survival requires that some freedom be given up.
handed consideration, acceptance and
(pp. 245-246, emphasishis)
evaluation ofall evidence pursued with
the supposition and hope that the 'best Moral equity demands that individuals
fit' to the data ... will be worked out" feel assured that any restraint on their
(p. 1102). Similarly, the dialectic ofmo- freedom is balanced by like restraint on
rality is good-faith negotiation among others, and that all welcome restraint as
equal participants, all of whom must being in theirpersonal long-term self-in-
speak their needs and press their claims terest.
forthrightly, while recognizing the right Skinner's overriding concern in Wal-
ofothers to do the same, and being pre- den Two and BeyondFreedom andDig-
pared "to engage in exchanges that can nity was withjust these issues, the trag-
result in their having less than they ini- edyofthecommons, thecarryingcapacity
tially thought was justified" (p. 1102). ofthe environment, and promoting the
Parallel to the dialectic truth-seeking of moral dialectic needed to achieve equi-
science, "Morality is the shared interac- tablerestraintsonunbridledself-interest.
tive understanding about the ways that Because the realization ofindividual in-
moral interchanges should be conducted terests requires the integrity ofthe sup-
and concluded" (p. 1102). porting group, society needs to devise
Haan (1982) further notes that "The ways to assure that members' individual
moral dialogue works to untangle legiti- actionsmakecontactwiththeirlong-term
mate self-interest and selfishness" (p. consequences-forthewelfareofthegroup.
1103). This is the heart of the matter. Haan (1982) says that "Our most
Theecologist Garrett Hardin hasput the pressing social problem is not the pop-
problem well in his discussions of the ulace's moral weakness but that social
"tragedy of the commons" (1968) and institutions increasingly limit citizens'
"the carrying capacity as an ethical con- moralparticipation"(p. 1103).Ireadthis
cept" (1978). Imagine agroupoffarmers intwoways.First,thetechnologicalcom-
who share a common village pasture. So plexityofoursocietylimitsourabilityto
long as the number ofcattle grazing the estimate long-term social and personal
commons does not exceed the carrying consequences of actions and to assess
capacity of the land-its ability to re- whichpublicorprivateactionsareinfact
plenish itself-this simple communitar- in one's interest. Second, the impersonal
ian anarchy works to ensure that the bureaucratic institutions of post-indus-
community's grazing land is efficiently trial society get in the way of citizens'
utilized. And it works equitably so long assumingtheirrolesasequalparticipants
aseach farmerputsaboutthesamenum- in moral negotiations, even when they
ber of cattle to graze as the others. But comeready,likeRalphNaderortheSier-
there is an economic advantage to the ra Club, with an abundance of well-
farmer who exploits the compact by in- founded forecasts concerning the future
creasing his herd. An addition by one consequences ofpresent actions.
induces the others to add to their herds, I conclude this section with a final bit
to reestablish equity. Eventually the car- ofwisdom from Haan (1982):
150 EVALYN F. SEGAL
[A]ltruism...doesnotproducemoralbalancebe- The key to self-control is self-knowl-
causethereceiverbecomesobligatedwhilethegiver edge. We control our own behavior by
becomesmorallysuperior.Insteadofreceivinggifts,
personallymanipulatingthecausesofthat
people much prefer having what is legitimately
theirs. Failure to understand that morality is bal- behavior.Justasknowledgeinformscon-
anced reciprocity is an endemic blindness ofthe trol, so self-knowledge informs self-con-
welfare state, which gives gifts instead ofrights to trol. People who want to exert respon-
participateinlegitimateandrewardedwork....(p.
siblecontrolovertheirownbehavior,and
1103)
so participate as equals in the moral di-
THE MORALITY OF alectic, must first understand the laws of
ENGINEERING MORALITY behavior as they apply to us all. Then
they must learn to discern (and not lose
Walden Twosketchesasystemofcom-
sightof)whatlong-termconsequencesare
munitariansocialengineeringwhosegoal
really important to their own and the
is not a welfare state but balanced reci-
group's interest.
procity. LikeG. S. Hallbeforehim, Skin-
But there is another dilemma that re-
nerenvisionedaworldwherepsychology
quires mention here-whether individ-
is the preeminent science, and its chief
uals whose behavior is at least partly the
task is to teach self-knowledge and self-
resultofothers'deliberatemanipulations
control.
can be said to be morally equal to those
Self-control issurelyanessentialofthe
who do the manipulating. (Is the pupil
moral dialectic, a necessary element in
morally equal to the teacher?) Haan
the ability to assert one's own interests
(1982)saysthat"Peoplecannotnegotiate
forthrightly yet abide at times with less
morallyingoodfaithiftheyfeelhelpless;
than one initially thought justified. But
they need hope that their legitimate self-
Skinner, andbehavioranalystsgenerally,
interests will be heard and considered"
assume thathumans are whollyapart of
(p. 1102).
nature, and hence wholly subject to nat-
Hereisonerootofthewidespreadfear
ural law. Our behavior, as much as our
ofthe planned control ofhuman behav-
organism, isthedeterminedresultofnat-
ior. Because ofhis emphasis on planned
ural, evolutionary forces outside our-
and institutionalized behavioral control
selves. How can we possibly gain self-
as a means of achieving moral equity,
control over such a process? And how
Skinner has been bitterly attacked as the
can we function as free and equal partic-
arch example ofthe mad, power-hungry
ipants in the moral dialectic if our be-
scientist, a dangerous totalitarian-com-
havior is wholly determined by forces
munistic or fascistic, depending on the
outside ourselves?
ideological stance ofthe critic. It is cer-
Garrett (1985) has some interesting
tainlylegitimatetoaskwhetherthemeans
thingstosayonthesequestions. Hemakes
ofbehavioral technologyarebytheirvery
a good case that
natureincompatiblewiththeendofmor-
argumentsoverdeterminismvsindeterminismare alequity. Doesbehaviortechnology ren-
besidethepoint. Ourfreedomsofaraswehaveor der its beneficiaries morally weaker than
lack itisa functionontheonehand ofourpower
the behavior technicians? Without hope
overour environment and over ourselves and on
theotheroftheextenttowhichweareenlightened that their legitimate self-interests will be
aboutwhatisreally important. (p. 33) heard and considered? Morally helpless
Wecan, onthe onehand, takeresponsibility for to negotiate in good faith?
ourlivesinthe sensethatwecantakestockofour Thesavinganswercomesdowntobal-
actions, thoughts, andpsychological statesandthe anced reciprocity (or perhaps tribal an-
consequences they have on ourselves and others
archy-see Crowe, 1969; Fox, 1985).
and we can (to a certain extent) discriminate be-
tweenwhatisreallyimportantandwhatisnotand Built into the structure ofany equitable
changeourselvesaccordingly....[Limitstohuman group must be the fundamental require-
freedom arise not from the determined nature of mentthattherulersbesubjecttothesame
behaviorbutfrom] ourlimitedpowerovertheen- contingencies as the ruled-indeed, that
vironment and over ourselves and from the fact
thattoo often we donot really know orlose sight there be no such distinction as ruler vs.
ofwhatisreallyimportant. (p. 35, emphasis his) ruled. (A governor or executive is not a
WALDEN TWO 151
ruler, although some governors and ex- from rearing masses ofdemoralized, de-
ecutives don't know that.) humanized, degradedhumanswhoseonly
Still, "equal under the law" is not ger- function is to serve a governing elite (as
mane to the relation ofparents to their George Orwell, 1949, and Aldous Hux-
children, teachers to their pupils, behav- ley, 1932/1946, and others have pro-
ior technicians to their clients. Unequal phesied)? It may be that pain and terror
knowledge and skills do imply unequal breedrebellion,butwithmodern-daybe-
power. In these situations, otherkindsof havior technology, is it not possible to
balanced reciprocity come into play. Be- eschew terror and rear contented zom-
havioral power consists mainly in the bies who will not want or even imagine
power to reinforce or punish. Punish- rebellion?
ment and other modes ofaversive con- Some ofthe possible answers to such
trol breed rebellion and counterforce, fears are well-founded, others simply
whereas the change in behavior named wishful,for,tobecandid,alltheevidence
by reinforcement occurs only ifthe con- isn't in. First, neither the human organ-
sequenceofactionisareinforcer,inwhich ism nor the environment is long at rest,
case the client might be said to be par- and creative innovation is the inevitable
ticipating in a (most of the time) mu- outcome ofhumaninteraction with a ki-
tually-advantageous compact or bal- netic environment. No matter how hard
anced exchange with the behavior and earnestly tyrants triedto makezom-
technician. bies, even contented ones, surely human
Besides, ifpsychology'sgoalistoteach inventiveness, combined with restless-
self-knowledgeandself-control, thenany nessbredofmonotony, wouldfoil them.
power imbalance between teacher and Further, humans, like animals, do in-
pupil ismeanttobetemporaryandbrief. deedrebelagainstforceandterror. When
Psychology's ideal goal is only reached human intelligence is engaged by the
when the pupil becomes independent of struggle against terror, sooner or (too
the teacher (or becomes the teacher). often) later, terror must lose out.2 In our
Individuals cannot gain self-control century, we have seen many (though by
without help. We do not choose our ge- no means all) terrorist regimes over-
netic heritage nor do we choose the for- thrown, some from within, some from
mative experiences that shapethe sortof without, some to be replaced by more
adults we become. Ifourintellectual and enlightenedsocieties, others,alas,byfresh
creativecapacitiesaretobefullyrealized, tyranny.
if we are to acquire interpersonal skills One technique always open to "mor-
and moral values consonant with the in- ally violated people ... [is to] covertly
terests of the group and a repertoire of fightbackinbadmoralfaith,evenifthey
knowledge and skills for self-control and become passive and pseudo-stupid"
self-expression, it can only be as the re- (Haan, 1982, p. 1102). Schell (1986) and
sultoflearningexperiencesthatthesocial Weschler(1983), inimportantrecentNew
milieuprovidesforus. Itisthegroupthat Yorkeressays, suggestthataltogethernew
ultimatelydeterminesthecharacterofits andingeniousmethodsofnonviolentpo-
members. The wise society fosters re- litical and cultural resistance are being
search on behavior so that it can exploit developed in Poland-Solidarity is one
the resultant technology for the purpose part ofit. These innovations in peaceful
of rearing intelligent, creative, thought-
ful, loving, moral, and self-controlling
2"'Sometimes we forget howclose engagement
citizens.
istoexhaustion,'aPolishfriendtoldmeoneafter-
Butthatissocialengineering, sofeared noon. ... 'It'samistaketoimagine thatabeaten-
by so many. The fear is understandable. downandapparentlydefeatedclasscan'tsuddenly
Who wants to envision a world ofcon- emergedefiantandfierce,withafiercenessbrought
ditioned zombies? How can zombies ne- on by preciselythe things that were making it ex-
hausted'" (Weschler, 1983, pp. 102, 105). Take
gotiate morally in good faith? Ifsociety notethatherefiercenessmeansfiercenessofdeter-
holds all the cards, what is to prevent it mination, notofaction.)
152 EVALYN F. SEGAL
resistance may in time lead Poland out imaginative, critical, creative workers.
ofdeep oppression even ifnot out ofthe People cannot be zonked and creative at
Soviet sphere; andwhatismore, thePol- the sametime. Individuals trainedtothe
ish experience may teach important les- intelligent skepticism needed to service
sons to the rest ofthe world.3 technocracy will grow restive under a
Ifterror cannot indefinitely support a stultifying social order. They will find
regime,whataboutthosecontentedzom- others like themselves and organize re-
bieswho havebeen conditioned without sistance-even the resistance ofpseudo-
benefit of terror by positive reinforce- stupidity. Eventually, human imagina-
ment methods? We can imaginethem as tion and intelligence will subvert any
not so very unlike the rock-and-televi- social system that does not respect the
sion-zonkedwalkingdeadwefindamong human need to create, invent, experi-
us today. May not capitalism (or com- ment, devise new challenges for human
munism)-cumrockporncumcomputer imaginationandintelligencetoplayupon.
games cum hot tubs and television Skinnerarguesin Walden TwoandBe-
smiles-become ever more efficient a yond Freedom and Dignity that any
machine ofenslavement as it wakes up societythatdiscountshumannature, hu-
to the possibilities of rationally-engi- man needs and interests, ultimately self-
neered positive reinforcement? What if destructs. So it is, not only for terrorist
our present bread-and-circuses world regimes, but as well for regimes deploy-
turns into a cake-and-space-carousels ing the more sophisticated technology of
world? positive reinforcement against the truly
In the short term, any perversion of human interests of their populaces. A
human society is possible. If other hu- culture that cannot count on the whole-
man-made disasters do not get us first hearted and intelligent support of its
(overpopulation; nuclear obliteration; membersmusteventuallygivewaytoone
triage; depletion ofwater tables, forests, better equipped to resolve the require-
arable land, the ozone layer; pollution of ments of social living with the facts of
air, water and earth), it seems virtually human nature-unless human society
certainthatthebalance-sheetmentalities simply vanishes.
who run the post-industrial nations will Perhapshalftheworldisnowenslaved
in time catch on to the immense power byterrorand the other halfbyeconomic
and economy ofsystematic, rationalized reinforcers dispensed by rapacious ex-
positive reinforcement. They will use it ploiters of our labor, our imaginations,
ever more efficiently to turn whole pop- and our precious habitat. Commissars,
ulacesintohappyzombies,justasAldous caliphs,andcowboysrestlesslyfingertheir
Huxley (1932/1946) predicted in Brave nuclear triggers and long for a thermo-
New World. (Living in southern Califor- nuclearjoust, while the rest ofus pursue
nia, I sometimes think that day has al- ourprivatePompeiianpleasuresandqui-
ready come.) etlypraythatnoartificialmeansorheroic
Butinthelongrun, that,too, mustfail. measures will be used to prolong our
Technocratic society needs intelligent, mushroomagony. Theremaysoonbeno
one left to worry about social engineer-
ing'sthreattohuman freedom. Ourpres-
I"Today itispreciselyin thesocieties underse- ent predicament leaves us with few, if
verest and most philistine governance-in South any, alternatives to engineering a moral
Africa, in Eastern Europe, in Latin America-that society, provided we want to avert the
much ofthe finest imaginative literature is being
greatest immorality ofall, eternal ther-
created.... The'censorship' ofthefreeand mass-
market economies is wonderfully light.... But it monuclear night.
corrodes, it trivializes.... 'Do not forget,' said
Borges, . . . 'that censorship isthe motherofmet-
aphor.'Banishingorhoundingseriouspoetstotheir WALDEN TWO'S VALUES
deaths... isahideoustributetotheirimportance.
The moral and social values Skinner
It is a tribute nevertheless...." (Steiner, 1986, p.
36). advancedin Walden Twoin 1948arejust
WALDEN TWO 153
what one would expect from a sensitive special privileges to match their special
andpropheticanalystofthehumanscene. responsibilities. They shared the lot of
Theyare muchthesamevaluesthatlater the community. Every member ofWal-
social thinkers have advocated (e.g., den Two had to contribute a certain
Schumacher, 1973), and the reasoning amount oflabor to the community, and
behindthemisnowfamiliar. Theground everyone, including managers and gov-
ofWalden Two'svaluesissimplythesur- ernors,hadtodischargesomeofthelabor
vival ofhuman civilization. obligationinmenialphysicalwork. Skin-
ner (1948/1976) explains why:
Small Scale The really intelligent [person] doesn't want to feel
that [their] work is being done by anyone else.
Skinner advocated smaller communi-
[They're]sensitiveenoughtobedisturbedbyslight
tiesinplaceofourcurrentmegalopolises. resentmentswhich,multipliedamillionfold, mean
Anyone who has visited the great cities [their]downfall....[Besides,]brainsandbrawnare
ofthe world in recent years can attest to neverexclusive.... [It's] fatal to treat brawn as if
there were no brains, and perhaps more speedily
the most visible horror ofthe megalop-
fataltotreatbrainsasiftherewerenobrawn. One
olis: nerve-rending traffic and air laden ortwohoursofphysical workeachdayisahealth
with the noxious waste products of the measure... butthere'sabetterreasonwhybrains
combustion engine and heavy industry. mustnotneglectbrawn...themanagermustkeep
Small scale is human scale. Crowding an eye on the managed, must understand [their]
needs, mustexperience [their] lot.... It'sourcon-
is unpleasant and stressful. Large cities
stitutional guarantee that the problems ofthe big-
are impersonal. It is easier to care about muscleuserwon't be forgotten. (p. 52)
the welfare of people one knows than
Small scale fosters balanced reciproc-
about anonymous hordes. Accountabil-
ity and good-faith moral negotiation
ityisbetteronthesmallscale. Thosewho
among equals. It obliges managers and
manage a society'sinstitutions shouldbe
governors to rely on positive incentives
accessible and answerable to the citizen-
to motivate the work ofthe community
ry. Smallscalemakesitpossibletorevive
and to shun force, both because the
ancient, anarchic forms ofparticipatory
technocrats' personalaccessibility makes
democracy. Walden Two'smanagersand
themreadytargetsofmembers' outraged
governors were not elected, but rather
responseto force, andbecausethetechn-
emerged from the existing managers and
ocrats share the daily life of the com-
governors through systematic appren-
munity and no more wish to be subject
ticeship. Butthemanagersandgovernors
to force than anyone else does.4
and their apprentices had to be ever-re-
There are economies ofscale that are
sponsive to the needs and wishes ofthe
available only to large populations, but
community, because their job security
theseeconomiesmustbeweighedagainst
depended on the welfare of the com-
the high cost ofsupplying the necessities
munity. Members were frequently que-
oflife to impacted populations and dis-
ried about their needs and wishes, and
their satisfaction (or lack thereof) with
community policies and practices. Small
scale makes it possible for social insti- 4"Edney ... reviewed experimental data show-
ingthatcooperativebehaviorisindeedmorecom-
tutions to respond quickly and thus en-
mon in small groups.... [H]e listedthe following
ablessocialexperimentation. Policiesand 'functional benefits' of reducing group size: Im-
practices can be tried out and promptly proved communication helps sustain necessary
modified or discarded ifthey prove un- feedback;greatervisibilityofmemberdistressdur-
workable orleadto dissatisfaction. In an ing scarcity enhances the probability ofremedial
action; individual responsibilities are harder to
evolutionary society, nothing is written
avoid;alienationisreduced;andtheroleofmoney
in stone. is reduced.... 'The improved focus on the group
Small scale works against the devel- itself, the greater ease ofmonitoring exploitative
opment ofcastes, and for moral equity. power, and the opportunities for trust to develop
The managers and governors (and psy- amongindividualswithface-to-facecontactarealso
enhanced'"(Fox, 1985,p.52,quotingEdney, 1981,
chologists) of Walden Two received no p. 28).
154 EVALYN F. SEGAL
posing of their waste products; the ex- honored theirartists. Acommunityneed
pense and sluggishness ofthe attendant not be wholly dependent on the rare in-
bureaucracies;andthelossofcontactwith teraction between genetics and the en-
the natural realities of life. Skinner en- vironment that brings forth a genius. It
visionedadecentralizednetworkofWal- can rely principally on the strategy of
den Twos which would jointly avail fostering everyone's talents, and provid-
themselves ofeconomies ofscale where ingsupport,encouragement,andtraining
indicated, while preserving the advan- for those intent on an artistic vocation.5
tages ofsmall scale in other areas. "Ap- It must also see to the development of
propriate Technology" is the current discerning audiences, but those, like art-
name for this. ists,aremade, notborn. Itistrainingthat
A student once objected to methatthe makes connoisseurs. Cultural tradition
small scale ofWalden Two would not be alone has made Italians discerning and
conducive to Skinner's expressed dream appreciative criticsofopera; Russians, of
offosteringgreat art. The student argued ballet; Viennese, Salzburgers, and Bos-
that, for example, only a large, concen- tonians, of symphonic music-not any
trated population can support a really nationalgeneticpredisposition foroneor
first-classsymphonyorchestra.Therehas another ofthese art forms.
to be a large pool of people so that the
rare individuals with musical talent will
be in sufficient supply, and so that the Respectfor the Carrying
population can take care of its subsis- Capacity oftheEnvironment
tence needs without burdening its artists It is remarkable that in 1948, when
with mundane tasks. Actuallly, there much ofthe world wasjust turning from
should be an overabundance of trained war production to the frenzied produc-
musicians, the student argued, so that tion ofconsumer goods, Skinnerhad the
competition forscarce orchestra slotswill prescience to propose a communitarian
goad them to reach for ever higher stan- life based on respect for nature and con-
dards ofexcellence. And the population servation of its resources. He foresaw
concentration has to be large enough to communal ownership of essential ma-
provide audiences-symphonic music, chinery and technological gadgetry, and
after all, isn't everyone's cup oftea. a high standard ofliving built upon em-
This view ignores history. The great inently nonmaterialistic values. Life in
citiesofEuropewerenomorethantowns Walden Two was not bereft oftechnol-
by our standards when art reached per- ogy; on the contrary, Skinner advocated
haps its highest excellence. Shakespeare, its maximum use to free people from
Vivaldi,Bach,andMozartwroteforsmall
audiences by current standards. Few of
Michelangelo's Italian contemporaries
couldhave seenhispaintings onthe ceil- I"[N]opoet,howeverinspired,iswhollythebe-
ing ofthe Sistine Chapel. getterofhis poem. The informing context ofper-
Great art seems to need neither large sonal creation is always social and collective....
Above all, it is in art and literature that the Mes-
concentrations ofpeoplenortheartificial
sianic challenge, the potential ofhuman ripening
stimulusofcontrivedcompetitiontogoad anddeliverance, isenactedandtransmittedacross
artists to excellence. What it surely does time.Thepoetisresponsibletowardtheclaimsand
need is appreciative, discerning audi- provocationsoftheidealjustbecauseacertainper-
sonalimpotencehasfreedhimfromthemire,from
encesandpatronswhoarewillingtopro-
thecompromiseofactualpower"(Steiner, 1986,p.
vide subsistence to professional artists.
36).
Genius is a rare commodity, but as for 6"[A]workethicthathasnofurtherjustification
artistic talent, that may well be a basic thanworkitselfandisdivorcedfromothervalues
part of the human heritage, the human is susceptible to bringdriven bynarrow self-inter-
est, and it risks that conceptions ofachievement
need to experiment, to play, to seek and
will be distorted into forms that are indifferent if
createvarietyandnovelty. Allknownhu- notantithetical tothepublicgood"(Spence, 1985,
mancultureshaveproduced fineart, and p. 1292).
WALDEN TWO 155
onerouslabor.6 WaldenTwowouldsure- ests, a small-print notice ofanevent suf-
ly have had its full complement ofcom- fices to quicken the heartbeat of inter-
putersandrobots.NorwaslifeinWalden estedmembers. Hypewouldbeallwrong,
Two devoid ofinteresting variety. With becauseiftheeventitselfdidnotprovide
small scale assuring everyone's full par- sufficient incentive for attendance, why
ticipation in the community, and tech- waste anyone's time with it? It was not
nology to shield workers from tedium, asthoughanyonehadtoworryaboutthe
Walden Two could count on everyone's profitability ofan entertainment indus-
pitching in with a good will to get the try, andnoone's livelihooddependedon
community's work done. And with an the size ofthe audience they drew.
enthusiastic work force, no one had to Skinner was quite right. Look at the
work very much. Skinner estimated that smallness ofthe print in the notices of
about four hours a day would suffice. eventsinanycollegenewspaper, orinthe
Membershadanabundanceofleisurefor program ofan academic meeting. In my
creative personal pursuits. city, oneofthe mostpopularnewspapers
Frequently and eloquently, Skinner is a free weekly made up ofa fat section
writes in Walden Two ofthe dawning of offine-printnoticesoftheweek'scultural
a Golden Age ofArt. This was no mere events; another fat section of free fine-
bread-and-circuses ploy to keep the printclassifiedadvertising; asectionwith
masses doped and compliant. On the news and articles ofgeneral interest and
contrary, Skinnerrecognizedthatplayful theatricalandmusicalreviews;andahype
and creative self-expression is an urgent section with lurid commercial advertise-
humanneed, thehighestreachofourhu- ments of rock bands, nightclubs, and
man capacities. Arts, crafts, sports, the mud-wrestling by semi-nude young
playful pursuit of pure science and in- women. Presumablytheluridadspayfor
vention would abound. There would be the rest ofthe newspaper, but ifthe pur-
something for everyone. In Skinner's veyorsofhypeweredispensedwith,could
Walden Two, amateur musicians found notthepapersurvivebychargingreaders
others tojoin them in an evening ofso- for the information that is now offered
sochambermusicfortheirownpleasure; free? I do not see why not, provided the
moreaccomplishedperformersandcom- publisherswerecontenttomakecostsand
posers found small but appreciative au- just a little more.
diencesfortheirperformances.Thecom- My city has an art institute whose
munitywasawashinmembers'paintings membership isopen toallwhochoose to
and sculptures, some in traditional and call themselves artists. It has about 800
others in experimental styles. Some members, who submit about 250 art
members cultivated flower gardens in works for public exhibition each month,
their leisure time, others held a dance, from whichjurors selectabout 90 forthe
otherstinkered inthelaborshoporread monthlyshow. Inasmuchasonlyahand-
in the library orrehearsed a play ortook ful of art works is sold each month, it
a group ofyoungsters on a nature hike. must be that members pay their yearly
There is an amusing scene in Walden dues, create theirworks ofarts, and sub-
Twoinwhichsomeskepticalvisitorsfrom mit them to the critical scrutiny of the
the Big City are standing around a bul- jurors forjustthepleasure ofmakingart,
letin board packed with small-print no- exhibiting it on occasion to the public,
tices of the week's social and cultural and having the fellowship and appreci-
events. One ofthe visitors expresses sur- ation ofother artists.
priseatthesmallnessoftheprintandthe I know several amateur chamber-mu-
absence ofcolorful posters urging mem- sicgroupsthathavemetweeklyforyears.
bers'attendanceatthevariousfunctions. Occasionally one gives a free public per-
The host explains that there is no need, formance. It must be that the musicians
and little point, in overselling events. In meet weekly for the sheer pleasure of
a community with abundant leisure and making music together, and that they
opportunity tocultivate tastesand inter- perform publicly without pay simply for
156 EVALYN F. SEGAL
the encouragement that public perfor- immediate reinforcement that impels us
manceprovidestoimprovetheirplaying. to act, the threat ofimmediate punish-
Iknowan82-year-oldwidowedbarber mentthatdetersus. Whentheimmediate
whohashadthe samebarbershopfor 35 consequences ofan act are the very op-
years, and still charges the same $1.95 posite ofits long-term consequences (as
for a haircut that he charged when he isoften the case), it isthe long-term con-
opened the shop. The shop is the center sequences that tendto lose out, to every-
of his social life. He figures that if he one's detriment.
charged the going rate for his mediocre If we are to resolve this dilemma, it
haircuts, he would have few customers must be by thejudicious exploitation of
and little to do all day. At night he goes just the same behavioral processes that
to a community dance hall and dances gaverisetoitinthefirstplace. Wecannot
until closing time. hope to solve society's problems by ig-
Thepainters,themusicians,thebarber noring the natural laws ofbehavior. (Ye
would thrive in Walden Two. As wise politicians, take heed.) The secret, says
people have always known, a satisfying Skinner, is to supplement the intrinsic
life isnottobefoundinanexcess oftoys consequencesthatflownaturallyfromour
andgadgets. With care, a musical instru- actions with extrinsic ones that society
ment will last a lifetime, a painter's only contrives. When immediate conse-
material needs are paints and canvas, a quences are at odds with long-term con-
barber'sshearscanberesharpened. Nov- sequences, we mustcontrive to offsetthe
elty, variety, challenge, and companion- short-term consequences by others that
shipareessential, butthecompulsiveac- are consonant with the projected long-
quisition of material things (with its term outcome forthe individual and the
resultant waste of earth's limited re- group.
sources) does not secure these human Societies have traditionally done just
requisites. They are more likely to flow this in the moral training ofthe young,
fromworkingonanewanddifficultpiece mostly by use ofpunishment and fear-
ofchamber music, setting oneselfa new "instilling a conscience," it is called. To
painting problem to solve, or from the offsetanyimmediateadvantagetoachild
variety ofpeople who drop into the bar- forlyingorstealing, say,thechild'smoral
ber shop or the dance hall for a haircut teachers contrive punishments to offset
or a polka and a sociable chat. the benefits of the misconduct. These
serve to bring children into more pal-
pable contact with the consequences of
Self-Control
their misdeeds for others; lying or steal-
For a society to survive, it must pro- ing harms others, so liars and thieves
vide subsistence to its members, while should be made to feel a comparable
respectingthecarryingcapacityoftheen- harm. In time, the inclination to engage
vironment and the subsistence needs of in punishable acts declines; the individ-
future generations. It must provide for ual has "learned self-restraint" or has
the satisfaction ofthe human needs for "developedaconscience."Ofcourse, the
community and affection, as well as au- ultimate source oftherestraintrestswith
tonomyandself-realization, inawaythat society, which carried out the moral
equitably balances the conflicting inter- trainingandwhichenforcesself-restraint
ests ofindividuals and the group. A root by exacting penalties for infractions of
problem for moral equity lies in the mo- the moral code.
tivation ofbehavior. An individual's ac- Skinner'schiefinnovationwouldbeto
tions, however pleasurable in the short replace a system of moral training and
term, mayhaveconsequences inthelong enforcement based on extrinsic punish-
run that are harmful to the individual ment of antisocial acts with a system
themself, or to other individuals, or to based on extrinsic reinforcement ofpro-
thegroup. Butpotentialconsequencesfar social acts. The reinforcement for pro-
off in the future are not the things that social behavior would have to be gen-
motivate behavior. It is the promise of erous enough and judiciously enough