Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1912–1923

271 Pages·2009·1.78 MB·English

OXFORD STUDIES IN
MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
GeneralEditors
simon dixon, mark mazower,
and
james retallack
‘AViewoftheMarmara’sSorrowfulShore,’fromTasvir-iEfkar,5June1921.
Sorrowful Shores
Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the
Ottoman Empire, 1912–1923
RYAN GINGERAS
1
1
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ISBN978–0–19–956152–0
1. Turkey—History—MehmedV,1909–1918.2. Turkey—History—Revolution,
1918–1923.3. Ethnicconflict—Turkey—History—20thcentury.
4. Turkey—Ethnicrelations—History—20thcentury. I.Title.
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Thisbookisdedicatedtotwopeople:
mywife,MarianaChavezVazquez,
andmygrandfather,CharlesFitzpatrick
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Preface
Ifthetruthbetold,thisworkwasbornoutofanactofcowardice.Myambitions
leading up to my comprehensive exams tended towards some kind of radical,
challengingproject.TherewaslittlequestioninmymindthatIwantedtowrite
mydissertationonsomecornerofAnatoliaduringtheFirstWorldWarand/or
the early Turkish Republic. Going for the jugular, I turned towards eastern
Anatolia.Acoupleofideascametome:perhapsastudyofhowthesmalltown
of Naxc¸ıvan became a part of Azerbaijan; better yet, the reconstructionof Kars
followingtheestablishmentoftheTurkishRepublic.
Either, I thought, would serve wonderfully. I was told otherwise. Friends
and colleagues with years of experience in Ottoman studies warned me that I
was essentially contemplating professional suicide. First there was the question
of sources. Where would I get them? Do such documents even exist? More
importantly, would Turkish archivists even allow me to see the records (a
question followed by anecdotal horror stories about scholars denied access to
statearchivesinTurkey)?Thentherewerethepoliticalconsequencestoconsider.
AdissertationdealingwithKurds,Armenians,orothertaboosubjectsinTurkey
wasboundtobringtroublesdownaroundme.NomatterwhatIdid,Iwastold,
someone would be very unhappy with my work. Someone, be it a member of
theTurkishgovernment,membersoftheArmeniandiaspora,orotherOttoman
scholars, would eat me alive for having challenged, upheld, or ignored some
aspect of eastern Anatolia’s recent history. In short, the advice I had was: don’t
doit.Dropit.Don’tkillyourcareerbeforeitbegins.
The dissertation that I wrote ultimately was founded upon this advice. My
time in the archives instead led me to focus on western Anatolia and drew
my attention to the roles of Albanian and North Caucasian immigrants during
theTurkish War of Independence.The research for this project generally went
swimmingly. None of the nightmare scenarios I was forewarned of came to
fruition.Nolifetimebans.Nohatemail.Nothing.
Still, I cannot say for sure that my friends and colleagues, people whom I
believe genuinely had my best interests at heart, were wrong. Yes, archivists,
scholars,andstaffImetinIstanbulandAnkarawereindeedhelpful,courteous,
and,attimes,arealpleasuretobearound.Thesheermentionofmyinterestin
MuslimimmigrantsinAnatoliawasgreetedwithsincereenthusiasmandsupport
by the archivists who helped make my research possible. More often than not,
though,IrarelybroachedthetopicofArmeniansandGreekswitharchivalstaff.
Sinceitwasnotthecentralfocusofmywork,theparallelfateofnon-Muslimsin
westernAnatoliaduringthewaryearswasasubjectIkeptundermyhat.Earlier
admonitionscontinuedtoplayinmyhead.
viii Preface
This roundabout preface is meant as both an apology and an explanation
for the continuitiesand discontinuities between my dissertation and this book.
The question of what happened to Anatolian Greeks and Armenians (as well
as other criminalized groups) between the years 1912 and 1923 lingers on like
some proverbial 500-pound gorilla in the room. Recent events such as the
murder of Hrant Dink confirm this. Yet I do not believe that the wartime
persecution of Ottoman Christians should be approached in isolation. More
to the point, it is quite clear to me that there is a more universal story to
be told of the level and significance of human suffering in Anatolia during
this period of time. As will become clearer through the coming pages, similar
patternsofreasoningandbehaviouronthepartoftheOttomangovernment,as
well as the occupational forces of Greece and others, led to the mass removal,
extermination,and suppression ofChristiansand Muslims alike. The degreeto
whichvariouscommunitieswerevictimizedbycompetingstatistforcescertainly
differedtremendously(ifIwasforcedtocompare,clearlyArmeniansandGreeks
collectivelysharedamoreunenviablepositionby1923thanMuslimimmigrants).
Whetheronecancomparelevelsofhardship,however,isnotthepoint.Rather,
thisbooktakesupthequestionofpreciselyhowandwhylargegroupsofpeople
livingaroundthesoutherncoastoftheMarmaraSeaweresubjectedtoaseriesof
deliberatecampaignstodothemharm.
In order better to highlight the unanimity of suffering found among various
communities living around the southern shores of the Sea of Marmara, I
have put greater emphasis on Armenian and Greek affairs. Although by no
means absolutely comprehensive, I believe these steps help better to bridge
the historical gap between Christian natives and immigrant Muslims than my
previousattempt.
Although the text that follows is not in execution a comparative work, it
must be said that the history of Anatolia during this period of time is not
uniqueinaglobalsense.Themassdisenfranchisementandliquidationofhome
populations is a phenomenon that can be found the world over. State terror of
thissortisamodernphenomenon,andispartandparcelofthelogicofmodern
state building. In situating this study within a finite region and approaching
a fairly finite collection of peoples, I take up several critical, but admittedly
dense, historical concepts: state modernization, organized violence, identity
formation, immigration, and network politics. By placing both geographic and
socialrestrictionsuponmyresearch,itwasmyhopetomakeadiscussionofthese
varioushistoricalthreadsmorewieldy,andthenarrativemoreseamless.
Looking back, I do not regret following the advice of my trusted peers.
Ultimately I feel that it has led me back to addressing my original goals. I do
hope,however, thatothers(withthickerskin thanmyself) takeonthehistories
ofKarsandNaxc¸ıvan,andothervitalstoriesyettobetold.
Acknowledgements
During the course of my doctoral research and the follow-up research for this
monograph,Ifoundmyselftravelling,attimesregularly,betweenToronto,San
Diego, New York, London, Istanbul, Ankara, Skopje, and Mexico City. Yet,
beforeIextendmygratitudetothoseImetalongtheway,Imustfirstthankmy
family and close friends. Above all, I want to thank my wife, Mariana Chavez
Vazquez,whohasgivensomuchofherselfandhashadtoenduretoomanylong
absences in exchange. Te quiero mucho, Marianita. Gracias por todo.Without
myparents,TomandDedeeGingeras,Idoubtthatmanyofmydreamswould
have become realities. My incredible sister Alison and my loving grandparents
Dot and Charlie Fitzpatrick each played vital roles in inspiring and supporting
me.Myfamily’sloveandencouragementhavemademewhoIamtoday.Iwant
to thank Metin Bezikog˘lu, Shane Cotter, Kevin Franks, Steve Maddox, Mike
Mastroeni, William Silverman, and Mark Tkach for their genuine friendship,
encouragement, and criticisms over the years. You have each been a wonderful
friendtome.
I have been a beneficiary of outstanding teachers and colleagues both at the
University of California, San Diego, and at the University of Toronto. I will
for-everbeindebtedtoVirginiaAksanandHasanKayalı.OvertheyearsIhave
come to see both as wonderful friends, trusted advisers, and consistent models
for how to conduct myself as a scholar and a human being. I would especially
like to thank Robert Edelman. Doctor Bob, who has been my rabbi and my
friend for many years, has long counselled me on how to become the historian
I am today. I would like to thank my colleagues at Long Island University for
theirsupportandguidanceasmycareertakesitsnextstep.
Agreatdealoftheresearchthatwentintothecreationofthisbookwasmade
possible by the support of the American Research Institute in Turkey and the
InternationalResearch and Exchange Board. Specifically, I would like to thank
Michelle Duplissis, Tony Greenwood, Pelin Gurol, Gülden Günleri, Nancy
Leinwand, and Tova Pertman for all of their assistance during my times (and
ordeals) away from home. I have nothing but thanks and kind words for the
staff of the Ottoman and Republican archives in Istanbul and Ankara. I would
specifically like to thank Yıldırım Ag˘anog˘lu, Noray Bozbora, Thomas Goltz,
AyhanKaya,NurcanÖzgür-Baklacıog˘lu,StanfordShaw,NicolevanderOs,and
members of the Türk-Arnavut Karde¸slig˘i Derneg˘i for their help in my research
inTurkey.Icannotforgetthekindnessandgenerosityshowntomebythestaff
andstudentsofSabancıUniversity.IwouldliketothankHalilBerktay,Hakan
Erdem, Rossitsa Gradeva, Peter Holt, Kerimcan Kavaklı, Cemil Koçak, Metin
Kunt, S¸erif Mardin, Ak¸sin Somel, and Mary Wynn for making my stay there