Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia 10th ed., 3 Volume Set (Van Nostrands Scientific Encyclopedia)

6194 Pages·2008·163.24 MB·English

by  Glenn D. Considine

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VAN NOSTRAND’S
SCIENTIFIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tenth Edition
VOLUME 1
Glenn D. Considine
Editor-in-Chief
Peter H. Kulik
Associate Editor
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A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
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VAN NOSTRAND’S
SCIENTIFIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tenth Edition
VOLUME 1
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(cid:1)
(cid:1)
VAN NOSTRAND’S
SCIENTIFIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tenth Edition
VOLUME 1
Glenn D. Considine
Editor-in-Chief
Peter H. Kulik
Associate Editor
(cid:1) (cid:1)
A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
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(cid:1) Copyright2008byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved. (cid:1)
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VanNostrand’sscientificencyclopedia. — 10thed. / editedbyGlennD.
Considine.
p.cm.
Includesindex.
“Threevolumeset.”
ISBN978-0-471-74338-5(cloth)
1. Science—Encyclopedias. 2. Engineering—Encyclopedias. I. Considene,
GlennD. II. Title:Scientificencyclopedia.
Q121.V32008
503–dc22
2007046658
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
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PREFACE
Theeditors are pleasedto introduceVanNostrand’sScientificEncyclope- of many influential scientists including many Nobel Prize winners in
dia,TenthEdition,thusbuildinguponthelongtraditionofexcellencethat Medicine,Chemistry,andPhysics;ahistoryoftheirtimesisnotcomplete
dates back some seventy years to the First Edition, published in 1938 as withoutmentionoftheirworks.Scienceishistory.
a single volume over 1,200 pages and updated over the decades in one A statistical summary of the Tenth Edition would include more than
volume (1947,1958,1968,1976,1983),and then in two volumes(1989, 10,000 entries and 9,500 cross-references; 4,800 diagrams, graphs, and
1995,2002).This Tenth Edition, in responseto exponentialgrowth, both photographs;morethan600tables;andanalphabeticalIndexofmorethan
inscientificknowledgeandintheelectronicavailabilityofthatknowledge, 100printedpagesthatfindsfewrivalsintherealmoftechnicalliterature.
hasgrownperforcetothreevolumesover6,100pages. Thesearelargeincreases,staggeringparticularlyinthenumberofentries,
The essence of VNSE is enduring, and it remains a fine, concise,
and they are the result of an exhaustive, ongoing selection process for
comprehensive,andaccessiblegeneralsciencework.Itsintellectualscope
content perhaps best described so presciently by Douglas Considine in
ranges from the introductory to the highly technical in a vast and
the Preface to the Sixth Edition in 1983: “Obviously,an encyclopediaof
ever-expanding array of topical coverage in the sciences, engineering,
thistypecannotservethesamepurposeasanewsmedium.Science,too,
mathematics, medicine, and more. As has long been the case, the
has its own noise level.This is particularly evidentfrom the hundredsof
editors have designed the book to be approachable by students of many
prematurelyannouncedandexaggeratedclaimsonefrequentlyfindsinthe
ages. An important feature continued in this work, therefore, is the
general communications media. Consequently, the authors and editors of
progressive development of the discussion of each topic, beginning with
this encyclopediamustcarefully sift through the vastscientific data bank
a simple definition expressed in plain terms, developing into a more
andsortoutthetriviafromrealprogress...thereisnoroomforrumorand
detailedtreatment,andaugmentedbyoften-extensiveAdditionalReading
theuntriedandverylittleroomindeedforthecontroversialinapermanent
suggestions.
Contemporary readers can continue to turn to VNSE for information scientificreferencesuchasthis.”Towhichthepresenteditorssay,Amen.
abouthowtheirdailylives areincreasinglyaffectedbythesophistication Buteventhestrictestselectioncriteria,appliedtothegargantuangrowthof
of today’s science and the complexity of modern technology. They will knowledge,leadinevitablytotheparadoxthatinprint,whatisnewtoday
beremindedthatknowledgeanddiscoveryexistinacontinuum,andthat willbe,ifnotobsolete,atleastinneedofimmediateupdatingtomorrow.
often,butnotalways,whatisnewdependsentirelyonwhatcamebefore. To that end the editors have included thousands of Internet references to
Asouresteemed,lateeditorofmorethan30years,DouglasM.Considine, fostercontemporaneityinresearchandAdditionalReading.Andfurtherto
waswonttosay,“Scienceishistory”.Withthatmantrainmind,andnoting thatend,theeditorshaveawonderfulannouncement.
thatithasalreadybeensixyearssincetheNinthEditionin2002,itistime VanNostrand’sScientificEncyclopedia,TenthEdition,isnowavailable
toexaminethisnewedition. ontheInternetthroughtheWileyIntersciencewebsite.Theonlineversion
The five major changes noted in the Preface to the Ninth Edition are usesembeddedInternetreferencesashyperlinksbothwithinthebookitself
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still very much a part of the book and are likely to remain so. First, and without—to the greater online community and also to other titles
the way that the editors wrote, gathered and assembled articles for this owned by John Wiley and Sons. At the click of a mouse the student
book is almost entirely electronic—from query letters to individuals or reader can now navigate VNSE instantly; this reflects how modern
or to academic, industrial or technical societies or entities; to primary students actually pursue knowledge, and their parents are not far behind.
research for new entries and updates for mature ones, now conducted Thepossibilitiesforreadyacquisitionoftopicalknowledgein,simplyput,
almost entirely on the Internet; to communication between editor and what is known,thus grow logarithmically through the interconnectedness
publisher and the transmission of text between them in the partnership
oftheVNSEanditslinkstothecyberworld.Theeditorsfeelstronglythat,
thatresultsinthebookitself.Second,themushroomingAgeofDiscovery
while there will always be an important place for printed literature of all
is still very much with us and is reflected in updates to articles and
kinds,asevidencedbythebeautifulvolumesathand,therealmofscientific
familiesofarticles,withspecialemphasisonthemanylifesciences,space
knowledge, compelled by the ongoing effects of that knowledge itself as
science, and computer technology, and much, much more, necessitating
expressed through information technology, will be accessed increasingly
the expansion to a third volume. Third, the use of Internet references as
viaelectronicmeans.
Additional Reading suggestions, a groundbreaking feature of the Ninth
Inclosing,onetruststhatthereaderwillindulgeapersonalobservation.
edition, has been retained and expanded; even print articles are often
In1976attheageof61,DouglasM.ConsidinewroteandeditedtheFifth
archived electronically by magazines and journals and thus the quest for
Edition of VNSE. In 2008 at a similar age, his son Glenn D. Considine,
additionalmaterialisincreasinglyelectronicinnature,withreadershaving
also a writer and editor, presents the Tenth Edition of VNSE. Science is
the advantage of much of the culling of thousands of “hits” on a given
topic having been done for them by the editors. Fourth, the editors have history. Family is history, too. Thus, this book is dedicated with abiding
inculcatedthepreviouslynewfeatureofTimeLinesandGlossaries,toadd affectionandgratitudetoDouglasM.Considine.
at-a-glanceinformationandhistoricalperspective,intoastapleofthebook;
newcoverageincludesvirology,physiology,pharmaceuticals,theInternet,
weather technology, and more. And fifth, the sense of history is further GLENND.CONSIDINE,Editor
developed by expansion of another once-new feature, brief biographies PETER H.KULIK,AssociateEditor
v
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REPRESENTATIVE TOPICAL COVERAGE
ANIMAL LIFE
Amphibians Coelenterates Mammals Protozoa
Annelida Echinoderms Mesozoa Reptiles
Arthropods Fishes Mollusks Rotifers
Birds Insects Paleontology Zoology
BIOSCIENCES
AminoAcids Biophysics Genetics Proteins
Bacteriology Cytology Hormones RecombinantDNA
Biochemistry Enzymes Microbiology Viruses
Biology Fermentation MolecularBiology Vitamins
CHEMISTRY
AcidsandBases Corrosion InorganicChemistry Oxidation-Reduction
Catalysts Crystals Ions Photochemistry
ChemicalElements Electrochemistry MacromolecularScience PhysicalChemistry
ColloidSystems FreeRadicals OrganicChemistry SolutionsandSales
EARTH AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
Climatology Geodynamics Hydrology Tectonics
Ecology Geology Meteorology Seismology
Geochemistry Geophysics Oceanography Volcanology
ENERGY SOURCES AND POWER TECHNOLOGY
Batteries ElectricPower NuclearEnergy SteamGeneration
BiomassandWastes GeothermalEnergy OceanEnergyResources TidalEnergy
Coal HydroelectricPower Petroleum Turbines
Combustion NaturalGas SolarEnergy WindPower
(cid:1) MATHEMATICS AND INFORMATION SCIENCES (cid:1)
AutomaticControl Computing Measurements Statistics
Communications DataProcessing NavigationandGuidance UnitsandStandards
MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES
ChemicalEngineering LaserTechnology Mining ProcessEngineering
CivilEngineering MechanicalEngineering Microelectronics StructuralEngineering
GlassandCeramics Metallurgy PlasticsandFibers Transportation
MEDICINE, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY
BrainandNervousSystem GeneticDisorders Ophthalmology
CancerandOncology Gerontology Otorhinolaryngology/Dental
CardiovascularSystem Hematology Parasitology
Chemotherapy Immunology Pharmacology
Dermatology InfectiousDiseases ReproductiveSystem
Diagnostics KidneyandUrinaryTract RespiratorySystem
DigestiveSystem MentalIllness Rheumatology
EndocrineSystem MuscularSystem SkeletalSystem
PHYSICS
AtomsandMolecules Gravitation Optics SubatomicParticles
Electricity Magnetism Radiation Surfaces
Electronics Mechanics SolidState TheoreticalPhysics
FluidState Motion Sound Waves
PLANT SCIENCES
Agriculture DiseasesandPests GrowthModifiers SeedsandGermPlasm
Algae Fruits NutritionalValues Trees
Botany Fungi PlantBreeding YeastsandMolds
SPACE AND PLANETARY SCIENCES
Astrochemistry Astronautics Astrophysics ProbesandSatellites
Astrodynamics Astronomy Cosmology SolarSystems
vi
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Specialists in all disciplines of the scientific community have contributed in many ways to the preparation of this Tenth Edition of the VanNostrand’s
ScientificEncyclopedia.Theirinputs rangedfrom the preparationofmanuscriptson complextopics,thesubmittalofnew dataforthe firsttime, advice
andcounseltotheEditorialBoard,theseekingoutofobscureanddiscreteinformation,andthereportingofresearchfindings.Inputsrepresentthoseof
scientists,engineers,technologists,locatedworldwide.Inadditiontonumerousacademicinstitutionsandprivateindustries,theeditorsaremuchindebted
to numerousgovernmentaldepartments,agencies,andfieldorganizationsfortheircooperation.Ithasalwaysbeeninthebesttradition ofthehistoryof
sciencetoshareknowledge.Itisthereforenomerecoincidencethatsomanycontributorsareteachersattheuniversitylevel,fortheynotonlyhavedeep
knowledge in their respective fields, but they also can communicate that knowledge effectively. The great improvements to the substance of this book
wouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthem,andtheeditorshavepreservedtheindividualstylesoftheauthorsinkeepingwiththetraditionofVNSEas
aneminentlypersonal,and,onehopes,moreaccessibleworkofgeneralscience.Theeditorsandstaffofthisencyclopediagratefullyacknowledgetheir
excellentcooperationandstressthatthefollowingabridgedlistofover650individualsandgroupscouldbemuchlonger.
Special appreciation must be extended for the efforts of Michael Ladisch of Purdue University, for his home article on Bioprocess Engineering
(Biotechnology).—David Leake of Indiana University, both for his home article on Artificial Intelligence, and for quarterbacking the entire family
of twelve AI “sidebar” articles.—The American Meteorological Society for their gracious permission to use numerous articles from the glossary
of meteorology.—Ramon A. Mata-Toledo, James Madison University, who reviewed the Computer Sciences and authored several articles.—Joseph
Castellano, President and CEO of Stanford Resources, who prepared numerous entries on Flat Panel Display Technology.—Dr. Thomas J. Harrison,
who prepared numerous articles on computers and digital technology.—Dr. Steven N. Shore, who authored and arranged several entries dealing with
astronomy and related sciences.—Dr. Ann C. DeBaldo, University of South Florida, who prepared numerous entries in the areas of immunology,
oncology,andinfectiousdiseases.—Drs.M.L.andW.L.Dilling,whoskillfullysummarizedthecomplexworldoforganicchemistry,itsnomenclature
and equations.—Richard Q. Hofacker Jr., who authored articles on microelectronics and telephony and who rendered invaluable assistance toward
creatingcomprehensive,yetconcise,inputsconcerningthebroadfieldoftelecommunications.—PeterE.Kraght,whonotonlyauthoredseveralarticles,
butwhoalsopreparedthefoundationforotherdescriptionsinthespheresofmeteorologyandclimatology.—ElmerRowley,whomadethecoverageof
mineralogy and crystallography in this encyclopedia truly outstanding.—VisionRx, Elmsford, NY., for the numerous entries on Vision and eye related
disorders.—Jeanne Maree Iacono, who authored and rendered invaluable assistance toward creating brief biographies on scores of scientists. Without
exaggeration,thelistofsuchveryspecialeffortscouldbeextendedbyseveraladditionalparagraphs.
NOTE:Inthecasesofrelativelyshortarticles,theauthors’initialsmaybeusedinsteadoftheirfullnames.Inthefollowinglist,anasteriskindicates
suchauthors.Forexample:*AmericanMeteorologicalSociety(AMS).
R. C. Aalberse, Central Laboratoryof the Blood Transfusion Service of H.R.Arum,Designatronics,Inc.,NewHydePark,NY.http://www.design-
the Netherlands Red Cross, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. http://stinet. atronics.com/
(cid:1) (cid:1)
dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0 P.Auvray,Levallois-Perret-Cedex,France.
727999 J. Bakos,J.H.Fletcher&Company,Huntington,WV.http://www.jhflet-
Bernard W. Agranoff, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. http:// cher.com/
www.biochem.med.umich.edu/biochem/research/profiles/agranoff.html M.S.Baldwin,WestinghouseElectricCorporation,EastPittsburgh,PA.
Mark Adams, Fisher Controls International, Inc., Marshalltown, IA. D. Bane, Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology,
http://www.emersonprocess.com/fisher/ Pasadena,CA.http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/index.cfm
O.J.Adlhart,EngelhardCorporation,Iselin,NJ.www.engelhard.com GaryA.Bannon,MonsantoCompany,StLouis,MO.
H. J. Albert, ParrInstrumentCompany,Moline,IL.http://www.parrinst. GregorBarclay,UniversityoftheWestIndies,StAugustine,Trinidadand
com/ Tobago.http://sta.uwi.edu/
P.S.Albright,Wichita,KS. R. Q. Barr, Climax Molybdenum Company, (A subsidiary of the Phelps
W. Randall Albury, University of New England, Armidale, New South DodgeCorporation),Phoenix,AZ.http://www.climaxmolybdenum.com/
Wales,Australia.http://www.une.edu.au/ AlanD.T.Barrett,UniversityofTexas,Galveston,TX.
R. A. Alfano, City University of New York (CUNY), New York City, NY. Alan J. Barrett, The Babraham Institute, Babraham, Cambridge, UK.
http://portal.cuny.edu/portal/site/cuny/index.jsp?front door=true http://www.babraham.ac.uk/
Ulf Alkner, AstraZeneca R&D, Lund, Sweden. http://www.astrazeneca. W.T.Barrett,FooteMineralCompany,Exton,PA.
com/ DerrickBaxby,UniversityofLiverpool,UK.
K.G.Alle,ImperialCollege,London,UK.http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/ TrudyE.Bell,[email protected]://science.nasa.gov/
D.Allen,NCRCorporation,FortCollins,CO. JamesBellows,WestinghouseElectricCorporation,CranberryTownship,
David E. Allen, WellcomeInstitute for the History ofMedicine,London, ButlerCounty,PA.http://www.westinghouse.com/home.html
UK.http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ E.Bendel,McDonnellDouglasCorporation,LongBeach,CA.
AmericanForests,Washington,DC.http://www.americanforests.org/ Richard E. Benedick, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL),
AmericanGasAssociation(The),Washington,DC.http://www.aga.org Richland,WA.http://www.pnl.gov/
*American Meteorological Society, (AMS), Boston, MA. http://www. R. J. Benke, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA. http://
ametsoc.org/; and http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/browse? www.westinghouse.com/
s=A&p=1 W.O.Bennett,AmericanTimeProducts,Woodside,NY.
Ames Research Center, NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration MichaelJ.Benton,UniversityofBristol,Bristol,UK.
MoffettField,CA.http://www.arc.nasa.gov/ Jeremy Berg, National Institute of General Medical Sciences,Bethesda,
M.J.Aminoff,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco,CA. MD.http://www.nigms.nih.gov/
EdwardS.Amis,UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville,AR. Kathleen L. Berkner,TheClevelandClinicFoundation,Cleveland,OH.
R.C.Anderson,JetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,CA.http://www.jpl. http://www.clevelandclinic.org/
nasa.gov/index.cfm M.S.Bernath,Gould,Inc.,Andover,MA.
Lorella Angelini, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, RaviBhagavathula,WichitaStateUniversity,Wichita,KS.
BeppoSAX(Satellite).http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/ DeepakBhatnagar,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),New
F. Arnold, Kollmorgen Corporation, Northampton, MA. http://www.eo. Orleans,LA.
kollmorgen.com/ NeilW.Blackstone,NorthernIllinoisUniversity,DeKalb,IL.
vii
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viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
J. Blackwell, Department of Macromolecular Science, Case Western Arturo Casadevall, Albert-Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY.
ReserveUniversity,Cleveland,OH. http://www.aecom.yu.edu/home/
J.A.Blaeser,Gould,Inc.,Andover,MA. JosephCastellano,StanfordResources,Inc.,SanJose,CA.
SuzanneBoard,Toronto,Ontario,Canada. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA.
Robert E. Bodenheimer, Jr., Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, http://www.cdc.gov/health/diseases.htm
GA. CentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique,SolarEnergyLaboratory,
Giles Boland, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA. http://hms.harvard. FontRomeau,France.http://www.cnrs.fr/index.html
edu/hms/home.asp C. G. Chaggaris, ORS Automation, Inc., Princeton, NJ. http://namc-
KatherineR.Bonson,NationalInstituteofMentalHealth,Bethesda,MD. hitech.com/portfolio/ORS/
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ Perng-Kuang Chang, United States Departmentof Agriculture (USDA),
NewOrleans,LA.
FredL.Bookstein,UniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,MI.
FrancisF.Chen,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,CA.
BorgWarnerChemicals,EngineeringStaff,Washington,WV.
Vinton G. Cherf, Internet Architecture and Technology, at MCI World-
G.Bouissie`res,UniversityofParis,Orsay,France.
Com.
R.S.Boulton,MinistryofWorks,Wellington,NewZealand.
R.H.Cherry,Consultant,HuntingtonValley,PA.
C.O.Bounds,St.JoeMineralsCorporation,Monaca,PA.
Boris Chertok, ENERGIASpaceAssociation,RussianFederation.http://
R.G.Bowen,ConsultingGeologist,Portland,OR.
www.energia.ru/english/
PeterJ.Bowler,Queen’sUniversityofBelfast,Belfast,Ireland,UK.
ThomasM.Chiang,UniversityofTennessee,Memphis,TN.
Patricia T. Boyd, Ph.D., U. Maryland Baltimore County, and NASA’s
A. Chiavello, Satellite Communications, Denver, CO. http://www.space-
GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,Greenbelt,MD.
colorado.org/index.html
J.Boyle,Giddings&LewisElectronicsCompany,FondDuLac,WI.
W. Chow, ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,PaloAlto,CA.http://www.
J.M.Breen,AdaptiveIntelligenceCorporation,Milpitas,CA. epri.com/
EmeraBridger,SUNNY-ESF,Syracuse,NY. NeilD.Christensen,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,Hershey,PA.
E.H.Bristol,TheFoxboroCompany,Foxboro,MA.http://www.foxboro. HenrikI.Christensen,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden.
com/us/eng/Homepage http://www.kth.se/?l=en
W.H.Brock,UniversityofLeicester,Leicester,UK. DennonClardy,NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).
AaronL.Brody,Packaging/Brody,Inc.,Duluth,GA. http://discovery.nasa.gov/
CeceliaM.Brown,UniversityofOklahoma,Norman,OK. DavidD.Clark,MITLaboratoryforComputerScience,Cambridge,MA.
JohH.Brown,FortWorth,TX. http://www.csail.mit.edu/index.php
P.M.Brown,FooteMineralCompany,Exton,PA. David L. Clark, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of
JanetBrowne,WellcomeInstitutefortheHistoryofMedicine,London,UK. Wisconsin,Madison,WI.http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home.html
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ EuanN.K.Clarkson,UniversityofEdinburgh,Edinburgh,Scotland,UK.
N.W.Browne,DavyMcKee(Oil&Chemicals)Ltd.,London,UK. J.Cobb,CognexCorporation,Needham,MA.http://www.cognex.com/
(cid:1) DonaldE.Brownlee,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA. NoelG.Coley,TheOpenUniversity,MiltonKeynes,UK. (cid:1)
Nils Bru¨nner, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark. DesmondH. Collins,RoyalOntarioMuseum,Toronto,Ontario,Canada.
http://www.ku.dk/english/ http://www.rom.on.ca/index.php
R.Brunner,SemiconductorProductsSector,MotorolaInc.,Phoenix,AZ, R.L.Colona,GeneralScanningInc.,Watertown,MA.
BureauInternationaldel’Heure,Paris,France David P. Commander, Water and Rivers Commission, Perth, Australia.
http://www.wrc.wa.gov.au/waterinf/index.html
BruceG.Buchanan,UniversityofPittsburgh,Pittsburgh,PA.
R.K.Conolly,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,Washington,DC.http://api-
Robert Bud, ScienceMuseum,London,UK.http://www.sciencemuseum.
ec.api.org/frontpage.cfm
org.uk/
P. J. Constantino, Jervis B. Webb Company, Farmington Hills, MI.
Alan Buis, JetPropulsionLaboratory(JPL),Pasadena,CA.http://www.
http://www.jervisbwebb.com/jbw/jerviswebbhomepage def.htm
jpl.nasa.gov/index.cfm
AldoConti,Frascati(RM),Italy.
B.M.Burns,CoalTechnologyAssociation,Gaithersburg,MA.http://www.
JimmyG.Converse,SterlingChemicalsInc.,TexasCity,TX.
coaltechnologies.com/
C.SharpCook,UniversityofTexas,ElPaso,TX.
L.H.Busker,BeloitCorporation,Beloit,WI.
P.H.Cook,TheDowChemicalCompany,Freeport,TX.
W.F.Bynum,WellcomeTrustCentrefortheHistoryofMedicineatUCL,
T.E.Cook,TheProcter&GambleCompany,Cincinnati,OH.http://www.
London,UK.http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/
pg.com/main.jhtml
RossN.P.Cahill,UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,Australia.
E.R.Caianiello,InstitutodiFisicaTeorica,UniversitA`diNapoli,Naples, A.B.Coon,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL.
George R. Cooper, SchoolofElectricalEngineering,PurdueUniversity,
Italy
WestLafayette,IN.https://engineering.purdue.edu/ECE/
JoeCain,UniversityCollegeLondon,London,UK.
GibertoCorbellni,University‘LaSapienza’,Rome,Italy.
CharlesH.Calisher,ColoradoStateUniversity,FortCollins,CO.
Katrina Cornish, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),
Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, Calgary, Alberta,
Washington,D.C.http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usdahome
Canada.http://www.capp.ca/
D.A.Corrigan,Handy&Harman,Fairfield,CT.
StefanoCanali,UniversityofRome,Rome,Italy.
A.T.Coscia,AmericanCyanamidCompany,Stamford,CT.
DonaldCanton,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL.
KeithA.Crandall,BrighamYoungUniversity,Provo,UT.
J.Caraceni,InternationalFuelCells,Inc.,SouthWindsor,CT.
DavidL.Crawford,Ph.D.,InternationalDark-SkyAssociation,(Emeritus
S.C.Carapella,Jr.,ASARCOLLC,Tucson,AZ.http://www.asarco.com/
Astronomer at National Optical Astronomy Observatories/Kitt Peak
J.J.Carpenter,AmericanTimeProducts,Woodside,NY. NationalObservatory),Tuscon,AZ,LightPollution.http://www.darksky.
Kenneth Carpenter, Denver Museum of Natural History, Denver, CO. org/
http://www.dmns.org/main/en/ J.H.Cronin,WestinghouseElectricCorporation,EastPittsburgh,PA
K.J.Carpenter,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA. A.B.Crossman,Brown&Root,Inc.,Houston,TX.
Ann Koh Carolyn, ColoradoSchoolofMines,Golden,CO.http://www. J.M.Cruse,UniversityofMississippiMedicalCenter,Jackson,MS.
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