Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia

3529 Pages·1995·189.459 MB·English

by  Douglas M. Considine P.E., Glenn D. Considine (auth.), Douglas M. Considine P.E., Glenn D. Considine (eds.)

Eighth Edition
VAN NOSTRAND'S
ENTIFIC
Eighth Edition
Animal Life
Biosciences
Chemistry
Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Energy Sources and Power Techonology
Mathematics and Information Sciences
Materials and Engineering Sciences
Medicine, Anatomy, and Physiology
Physics
Plant Sciences
Space and Planetary Sciences
DOUGLAS M. CONSIDINE, P.E.
Editor
GLENN D. CONSIDINE
Managing Editor
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
Copyright© 1995 by Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Van Nostrand Reinhold in 1995
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 8th edition 1995
Ali rights reserved. N o part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may
be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage
and retrieval systems-without the written permission ofthe publisher.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1O ARCKP O1 00 99 98 97 96 95 94
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia 1 Douglas M. Considine, editor.
Glenn D. Considine, managing editor.-8th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4757-6920-3 ISBN 978-1-4757-6918-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-6918-0
1. Science - Encyclopedias. 2. Engineering-Encyclopedias.
I. Considine, Douglas M. II. Title: Scientific encyclopedia.
Q12l.V3 1994 94-29100
503-dc20 CIP
REPRESENTATIVE TOPICAL COVERAGE
ANIMAL LIFE
Amphibians Coelenterates Mamals Protozoa
Annelida Echinoderms Mesozoa Reptiles
Arthropods Fishes Mollusks Rotifers
Birds Insects Paleontology Zoology
BIOSCIENCES
Amino Acids Biophysics Genetics Proteins
Bacteriology Cytology Hormones Recombinant DNA
Biochemistry Enzymes Microbiology Viruses
Biology Fermentation Molecular Biology Vitamins
CHEMISTRY
Acids and Bases Corrosion Inorganic Chemistry Oxidation-Reduction
Catalysts Crystals Ions Photochemistry
Chemical Elements Electrochemistry Macromolecular Science Physical Chemistry
Colloid Systems Free Radicals Organic Chemistry Solutions and Salts
EARTH AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
Climatology Geodynamics Hydrology Tectonics
Ecology Geology Meteorology Seismology
Geochemistry Geophysics Oceanography Volcanology
ENERGYSOURCESANDPOWERTECHNOLOGY
Batteries Electric Power Nuclear Energy Steam Generation
Biomass and Wastes Geothermal Energy Ocean Energy Resources Tidal Energy
Coal Hydroelectric Power Petroleum Turbines
Combustion Natural Gas Solar Energy Wind Power
MATHEMATICS AND INFORMATION SCIENCES
Automatic Control Computing Measurements Statistics
Communications Data Processing Navigation and Guidance Units and Standards
MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES
Chemical Engineering Laser Technology Mining Process Engineering
Civil Engineering Mechanical Engineering Microelectronics Structural Engineering
Glass and Ceramics Metallurgy Plastics and Fibers Transportation
MEDICINE, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY
Brain and Nervous System Genetic Disorders Ophthalmology
Cancer and Oncology Gerontology Otorhinolaryngology/Dental
Cardiovascular System Hematology Parasitology
Chemotherapy Immunology Pharmacology
Dermatology Infectious Diseases Reproductive System
Diagnostics Kidney and Urinary Tract Respiratory System
Digestive System Mental Illness Rheumatology
Endocrine System Muscular System Skeletal System
PHYSICS
Atoms and Molecules Gravitation Optics Subatomic Particles
Electricity Magnetism Radiation Surfaces
Electronics Mechanics Solid State Theoretical Physics
Fluid State Motion Sound Waves
PLANT SCIENCES
Agriculture Diseases and Pests Growth Modifiers Seeds and Germ Plasm
Algae Fruits Nutritional Values Trees
Botany Fungi Plant Breeding Yeasts and Molds
SPACE AND PLANETARY SCIENCES
Astrochemistry Astronautics Astrophysics Probes and Satellites
Astrodynamics Astronomy Cosmology Solar System
v
Preface
Advancements in science and engineering have occurred at a surprisingly rapid pace since the release of the seventh edition of this encyclopedia.
Large portions of the reference have required comprehensive rewriting and new illustrations. Scores of new topics have been included to create this
thoroughly updated eighth edition.
The appearance of this new edition in 1994 marks the continuation of a tradition commenced well over a half-century ago in 1938 Van Nostrand's
Scientific Encyclopedia, First Edition, was published and welcomed by educators worldwide at a time when what we know today as modern science
was just getting underway. The early encyclopedia was well received by students and educators alike during a critical time span when science became
established as a major factor in shaping the progress and economy of individual nations and at the global level.
A vital need existed for a permanent science reference that could be updated periodically and made conveniently available to audiences that
numbered in the millions. The pioneering VNSE met these criteria and continues today as a reliable technical information source for making private
and public decisions that present a backdrop of technical alternatives.
It is pertinent to note that over the years a number of successful scientists and engineers have given this single publication ( VNSE) much of the
credit for initially inspiring their interest in science, sometimes leading to a lifetime career in science or, in other instances, stimulating scientific
hobbies and participation in events of scientific concern at the community level. A majority of social and health issues today, for example, must be
discussed in scientific terms in the interest of developing effective remedial actions. Frequently, the VNSE can serve as the basis of a forum for
discussing conflicting professional viewpoints.
As information processing capabilities expand, the editors' roles become more important and more difficult. With expanding masses of raw
information, the tasks of sorting and weighing the relative importance of new data require increasing editorial judgment and skill. The editors not
only have the task of identifying new information and of eliminating obsolete data, but even more importantly, they have the chore of providing the
keys to the meaning of new data. Great care must be exercised by the editors to select and include numerous sources of additional reading on all
important topics. References must be selected for their authenticity, their own particular vantage points, and notably for new content that augments
and not simply repeats the content of the encyclopedia entry per se.
SCOPE
Six major categories of scientific endeavor are addressed by the VNSE, Energy and Environmental Sciences. Chemical Fuels, Environ
Eighth Edition. In turn, each of these categories is divided into more ment, Fossil Fuels, Geothermal Energy, Hydropower, Nuclear Power,
specialized fields. It is clearly evident, of course, that science is a Solar Energy, Tidal Energy
highly interdisciplinary field of knowledge, a fact that tends to blur Materials Sciences. Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Me
rigid definitions. The six basic categories may be subdivided as fol chanical Engineering, Metallurgy, Mining, Solid State, Structural En
lows: gineering, Synthetics and Polymers, Composites
Earth and Space Sciences. Astrodynamics, Astronautics, Astron Physics and Chemistry. Acoustics, Atoms/Molecules, Crystals,
omy, Cosmology, Geodesy, Geology, Geophysics, Hydrology, Meteor Electricity, Electronics, Fluids, Inorganics, Lasers, Magnetism, Me
ology, Oceanography, Seismology, Spacecraft chanics, Optics, Organics, Particle Physics, Radiation, Thermodynam
Life Sciences. Amphibians, Anatomy, Bacteriology, Biosciences, ics, Thin Films
Birds, Diseases, Ecology, Fishes, Gene Sciences, Insects, Mammals, Mathematics and Information Sciences. Communications, Com
Other Life, Paleontology, Physiology, Plants, Reptiles puters, Statistics, Standards
VIGNETTES
UTTER CHAOS. Since the formative years of science, the precepts you need to understand a system rises exponentially with the system's
of classical mechanics were entrenched firmly in the pursuit of dy dimensionality, that is, the number of independent variables or degrees
namic systems and guided by the unwavering notion that the behavior of fre~dom needed to describe it. Some of the projects involving what
of complex systems could be predicted accurately provided that one had we thought would be simple questions have turned out to be very diffi
enough information and intelligence. The concept (or theory) of chaos cult. And, of course, there's the problem of noise. In many cases, it may
has challenged this historic approach. The ground rules are changing! be very hard to get data sets that are sufficiently tidy for understanding
The "sufficient information" doctrine first was challenged at the chaos. On the other hand, chaos theory can help us learn the limits of
atomic level by quantum mechanics in the 1920s. In the 1980s, prior predictability for very complex systems, such as the weather, and may
tenets received another setback with the emergence of chaos theory. even give us new tools for controlling these systems.
This theory holds that for microscopic or macroscopic systems, tiny The implications of chaos theory for electric power equipment and
variations in initial conditions sometimes may create unexpected, radi networks are both disturbing and exciting. On the one hand, an unsus
cally different outcomes, seemingly making it impossible to predict pected potential for instability may lurk among the operating condi
fully the behavior of some systems. Perhaps most startling of all, such tions of systems thought to be well understood. Sudden voltage col
behavior can arise in relatively simple systems governed by a few un lapses on power grids, for example, may indicate the presence of
complicated equations. Thus, relatively simple or highly complex sys underlying chaotic dynamics. On the other hand, understanding chaos
tems can exhibit chaos. During the course of the first score of years of may provide unprecedented control over some of the most complex and
its existence, chaos theory generated wide interest in academia, but elusive natural processes, such as combustion, corrosion, and super
relatively few practical examples. However, quite recently, the science conductivity.
of system dynamics has entered a new era, one that is comparable to the Researchers observe, "The problem is how to distinguish 'determi
time frame when quantum mechanics was "fleshing out." nistic chaos' from stochastic, or totally random behavior. Chaos has an
A physicist at the Electric Power Research Institute recently ob underlying order, a pattern that's not periodic, but isn't completely ran
served, "With chaos, we're on the brink of a new classical dynamics and dom either. In any real system, however, some stochastic processes are
people thought that classical physics was dead." Another scientist has also likely to be present as noise. It's like looking for a fuzzy pattern
observed, "It's called the curse of dimensionality"-the amount of data through a fog."
vii
VAST GALAXY DRIFT. Coma cluster of galaxies. Astronomers Tod R. Lauer (National Optical Astronomy Observatories) and Marc Postman (Space Telescope
Science Institute) used the brightest galaxy in this cluster, and 118 other clusters like it, as stationary references for observing motion of our own Milky Way galaxy
with respect to the universe. (National Optical Astronomy Observatories).
Preface ix
As early as 1899, Jules-Henri Poincare (France) recognized the pos new observations thus challenge our understanding of how the uni
sibility fur chaotic behavior in dynamic systems. However, it was not verse evolved.
until 1961 that the meteorologist, Edward Lorenz, observed the phe This surprising conclusion comes from the deepest systematic survey
nomenon when he was attempting to construct a simple computer of galaxy distances to date, conducted by Dr. Tod R. Lauer of National
model of weather on the basis of convection currents in the earth's at Optical Astronomy Observatories (NOAO) in Tucson, Arizona, and Dr.
mosphere. Marc Postman of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScl) in Bal
Lorenz mapped a three-dimensional pattern (called a butterfly) that timore, Maryland. The two astronomers used NOAO telescopes at Kitt
commonly appears when plotting chaotic data. The development of Peak National Observatory, near Tucson, Arizona, and at Cerro Tololo
chaos science to where it is today is exquisitely summarized: "It took Inter-American Observatory, near La Serena, Chile, to study galaxy
more than a decade and a half for this phenomenological pattern to gain motions over the entire sky out to a distance of over 500 million light
enough recognition to be named and it took even longer for investiga years, thus exploring a volume of space about thirty times larger than
tions of chaos to earn scientific respectability." has been surveyed previously. 1
Processes currently under investigation with reference to chaos in The expansion of the universe causes all galaxies to be moving
clude fluidized-bed combustion, electric power grids, and chaos as re away from us. Galaxies at the far edge of the volume surveyed by
lated to fractal geometry. Lauer and Postman (see accompanying photo) are receding from us
See Mathematics (State of the Art Reviews). at 5 percent of the speed of light. The large flow that the astronomers
discovered comes from looking at the galaxy motions "left over" once
the expansion of the universe has been taken into account. This flow
NEW GLASS PROCESS IS COOL. Traditional glass is an inor means that the nearby universe appears to be drifting in a particular
ganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid solid without under direction with respect to the more distant universe, as well as expand
going crystallization. Recently, sol-gel glass has been introduced to the ing.
commercial market. Sol-gel processing is a chemically-based method Lauer and Postman have measured the drift of the Milky Way with
for producing glass at a relatively low temperature. Low-temperature respect to 119 clusters of galaxies located all over the sky at distances
processing offers numerous advantages, such as casting of net shapes as far as 500 million light years. The galaxy clusters are at a variety of
and net surfaces, improved physical properties, and the production of a distances from us, and galaxies in the distant clusters appear dimmer
new type of material, transparent porous glass matrices. than the ones in nearby clusters. However, once the various distances
A sol is a dispersion of colloidal particles in a liquid. A gel is an are accounted for, the brightest galaxy in each cluster is always found
interconnected rigid network of submicrometer dimensions. A gel can to give off roughly the same amount of light. Astronomers refer to such
be formed from an array of discrete colloidal particles, or a three-di objects as "standard candles." In a uniformly expanding universe, the
mensional network can be formed from the hydrolysis and condensa distances to the clusters are estimated by how fast they are moving away
tion of liquid metal alkoxide precursors. from us.lfthe Milky Way Galaxy is drifting, however, its motion makes
The ability to make optics without grinding or polishing and to rep measurement of the expansion speed depend on the direction we are
licate surface features from a master solid with high accuracy (I part in looking, and the "standard candle" galaxies will appear to vary slightly
I 04) is an important advance in optical glass technology offered by sol in brightness in a smooth pattern across the sky. Lauer and Postman
gel processing. The fundamental advantages of these new glass proc used images of the cluster galaxies to detect this pattern and determine
esses and products are rapidly becoming apparent. the motion of our own galaxy.
See Glass. If the motion of the Milky Way is caused by galaxies closer in than
the set of clusters, its motion with respect to the distant clusters should
be essentially identical to that with respect to the microwave back
ONCOLOGY-A SHIFTING CHALLENGE. Cancers were ground radiation. But the motion of the Milky Way that Postman and
treated as early as 2000 B.C. in Egypt. Throughout the intervening years, Lauer measured from the distant clusters is in a completely different
various forms of cancer therapy have resulted from an iterative process direction from that inferred from the microwave background. The most
of intuition and guesstimation. Contemporary cancer therapy thus es likely solution to this dilemma is that the clusters themselves are mov
sentially represents the empirical knowledge amassed by the profes ing with respect to the microwave background with an average velocity
sionals over a very long time span, including millions of hours in labo of 425 miles per second toward that direction of the constellation of
ratory and hospital settings. There are, however, growing signs of Virgo. Because of the enormous size of the volume containing the clus
impatience among scientists and the lay public and a shift away from ters, however, this result would imply the existence of even more distant
vertical avenues of study. One scientist has observed, "To comprehend and massive concentrations of matter if the motions are caused by
the process of carcinogenesis is to understand, at the molecular level, gravitational forces.
the nature and workings of the cells that constitute life itself." See Cosmology.
The probable cause of cancer at the cellular level was first suggested
by the German pathologist, Rudolf Virchow (1880). His intuitively de
GENETIC MAPPING. After initial persuasion by the biochemical
rived concept preceded by nearly a century the beginnings of molecular
biology and the establishment of the gene sciences and genetic engi and genetic sciences community, the National Academy of Sciences (U.
S.), in 1988, endorsed an effort to map and sequence the human
neering. It was not until the 1970s that Frederick Sanger and coworkers
unraveled the structures and functions of RNA and DNA. Nevertheless, genome.2 Genetic maps had been constructed from many different
types of data using different techniques ranging back to the first genetic
Virchow's proposal did add a new dimension to empirical cancer inves
linkage map made as early as 1913.
tigations.
Genetic linkage maps are based on the coinheritance of allele combi
In a relatively quiet way, cancer research and the financial support
nations across multiple polymorphic loci. The primary source of link
for such research is being reassessed. Confidence in the professionals
age data is the observation of gametic allele combinations.
has suffered erosion because of miscalculations made in connection
with the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. A rise in prostate The allelic constitution of gametes for human linkage studies tradi
tionally has been determined indirectly by family studies and statistical
cancer remains unexplained.
inference. Improvements in analytical methods in recent years has made
See Cancer and Oncology.
possible the direct molecular analysis of gametes and single chromo
somes. The highest level of resolution for a molecularly-based physical
VAST GALAXY DRIFT. Two astronomers have discovered that our
own Milky Way Galaxy and most of its neighboring galaxies con
'National Optical Astronomy Observatories, Tucson, Arizona (March 21,
tained within a huge volume of the universe, one billion light years 1994). Also The Astrophysical J. (April 20, 1994).
in diameter, are drifting with respect to the more distant universe. 2The genetic constitution of an organism. One full set of the 24 distinct human
This startling result may imply that the universe is "lumpier" on much chromosomes is estimated to contain -3 X 109 base pairs of DNA, throughout
larger scales than can be readily explained by any current theory. The which are distributed -1 X 105 genes.
x Preface
map is the DNA sequence. This yields the linear order of nucleotides could become the strongest fibers in existence. The strength derives
for each of the 24 distinct human chromosomes. Thus, a complete ref from the nature of carbon-carbon bonds, on the one hand, and the nearly
erence sequence will contain -3 X I 09 bp of DNA. flawless structure of the tubular crystals, on the other.
As of the publication date of this encyclopedia, most scientist inter See Carbon.
ested in the Human Genome Project (HGP) are satisfied with the pro
gress made to date, and some forecast that the project may be completed
ahead of the original target date of about the year 2010. Much of the A BORING TRIUMPH. Tunnel engineering dates back to the an
progress is attributed to the use of advanced, automated sequencing cient Egyptians, Assyrians, and Indians who constructed tunnels in
equipment. A major thrust of HPG is the ultimate development of gene connection with tombs and temples. Later, aqueducts and highways and
therapy for diseases that derive from faults in the human gene system. railways required tunnels for penetrating mountainous terrain and cre
See Genetics and Gene Science. ating traffic pathways under water.
The first attempt to bore a tunnel under the English Channel was
MOLECULE OF THE DECADE. Traditionally, the principal forms made in 1880. The tunnel was almost 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter. Engi
of carbon have been ( 1) diamond with its tetrahedral arrangement of neering and financial problems halted construction in 1882, but over
atoms, (2) graphite, whose structure resembles layers of chicken wire, the years the desirability of such a structure did not diminish. It was not
and sometimes (3) a poorly defined grouping of carbons, simply called until the early-1980s that the French and British drew up a working plan
amorphous. This latter classification was one more of convenience than for constructing the Eurotunnel with a completion target of the mid-
grounded scientifically. However, by recent concensus, a third form of 1990s. The tunnel was opened to commercial traffic in 1994.
carbon now is officially recognized, namely, thefullerenes, of which the Contrary to the common conception, the Eurotunnel is not simply a
C60 so-called buckminsterfullerene or "buckyball" is the most thor tube lying on the sea bed exposed to the hazards of the North Sea, but
oughly investigated example of its class. several tubes bored between 82 feet (25m) and 148 feet (45 m) below
The less-than-scientific aura ascribed to the comparatively recent the sea bed. From Folkestone, past Dover and under the Channel for a
discovery of a third form of carbon, the fullerenes, is reminiscent of total distance of about 30 miles ( 45 km), the multiple tunnels are bored
flavors used a few years ago to describe the various kinds of quarks in through chalk marl, generally considered to be one of the most consis
the field of high-energy physics. The technical literature on fullerenes, tently safe tunnelling mediums. As the tunnels approach the Folkestone
as of early 1994, features such terms as buckyball, buckminsterfuller terminal, they pass through gault clay and other strata and, for the first
ene, buckytube, carbon cage. dopey ball, hairy ball, Russian doll, eta!., 3.1 mi (5 km) from the Coquelles (France) terminal, the tunnels pass
some of which terms are synonymous; others having specific connota
through more faulted zones and sands and gravels. These materials
tions. Considered as an entity, fullerene chemistry constitutes a major
proved to be the most difficult to bore.
breakthrough in the science of physics and chemistry of materials at the
Highly specialized boring machines with an inside diameter of 24.9
molecular level.
feet (7.6 m) performed multiple functions, including the creation of
The absence of a formal nomenclature at this juncture is accompa
hydraulically sound tunnel linings. In addition to passenger trains,
nied by a somewhat fuzzy chronology pertaining to the discovery and
trucks riding aboard specially-designed rail cars will carry freight. Co
early research on the fullerenes. However, the isolation and confirma
ordination of all supporting facilities, such as communications, safety,
tion of the C all-carbon molecule sans any dangling bonds, as first
60 ventilation, and high-speed operation required the exceptional techni
conjectured in 1985, was pivotal to subsequent research.
cal leadership and management expertise comparable to the most com
Materials engineers are becoming very interested in buckytubes be
plex of space-age engineering projects.
cause they perform better than graphite in carbon-carbon composites.
See Tunnel Engineering.
A theory of the electronic properties of doped fullerenes is proposed
in which electronic correlation effects, within single fullerene mole
NOTE: The foregoing brief comments refer to less than Ill OOOth
cules, play a central role and qualitative predictions have been made,
percent of the total VNS Encyclopedia.
which, if verified, will support the hypothesis. Transmission electron
microscopy has revealed the formation ofbuckytubes. These ultimately DOUGLAS M. CONSIDINE, Editor
Acknowledgments
Several hundred scientists, engineers, and educators, located worldwide, made this Eighth Edition of the Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia a
reality. Their inputs ranged from detailed information, graphics, and editorial guidance to the creation of comprehensive manuscripts on complex
subjects. The editors and staff of this encyclopedia gratefully acknowledge their excellent cooperation and stress that the following abridged list of
over 250 individuals and groups could be much longer.
NOTE: In the cases of relatively short articles, the authors' initials may be used instead of their full name. In the following list, such authors are
indicated by an asterisk. For example: *R. C. Vickery (RCV).
Adams, Mark Barr, R. Q. Bowen,R.G.
Fisher Controls International, Inc. Climax Molybdenum Company Consulting Geologist
Marshalltown, Iowa Greenwich, Connecticut Portland, Oregon
Adlhart, 0. J. Barrett, W. T. Boyle, J.
Engelhard Corporation Foote Mineral Company Giddings & Lewis Electronics Co.
Menlo Park, Connecticut Exton, Pennsylvania Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin
Albright, P. S. Bendel, E. Breen, J. M.
Wichita, Kansas McDonnell Douglas Corporation Adaptive Intelligence Corporation
Long Beach, California Milpitas, California
Allen, D.
NCR Corporation
Benke, R. J.
Bristol, E. H.
Fort Collins, Colorado
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
The Foxboro Company
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Foxboro, Massachusetts
American Gas Association (The)
Arlington, Virginia
Bennett, W. 0.
Brown, P.M.
American Time Products
American Forestry Association (The) Foote Mineral Company
Woodside, New York
Exton, Pennsylvania
Washington, D.C.
Bernath, M. S.
Ames Research Center Browne, N. W.
Gould, Inc.
National Aeronautics and Space Davy McKee (Oil & Chemicals) Ltd.
Andover, Massachusetts
Administration London, United Kingdom
Moffett Field, California
Blackwell, J.
Department of Macromolecular Science Brunner, R.
Arnold, F. Semiconductor Products Sector
Case Western Reserve University
Kollmorgen Corporation Motorola Inc.
Cleveland, Ohio
Commack, New York Phoenix, Arizona
Blaeser, J. A.
Arum,H.R.
Gould, Inc. Bureau International de l'Heure
Designatronics, Inc.
Andover, Massachusetts Paris, France
New Hyde Park, New York
BorgWarner Chemicals Burns,B.M.
Auvray, P.
Engineering Staff National Coal Association
Levallois-Perret-Cedex, France
Washington, West Virginia Washington, D.C.
Baldwin, M. S.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Bouissieres, G. Busker, L. H.
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania University of Paris Beloit Corporation
Orsay, France Rockton, Illiniois
Bakos, J.
J. H. Fletcher & Company Boulton, R. S. Caianiello, E. R.
Huntington, West Virginia Ministry of Works Instituto di Fisica Teorica
Wellington, New Zealand Universita di Napoli
Bane, D. Naples, Italy
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Bounds, C. 0.
California Institute of Technology St. Joe Minerals Corporation Canadian Petroleum Association
Pasadena, California Monaca, Pennsylvania Calgary, Alberta
xi