USSR : the politics of oligarchy

273 Pages·2019·26.709 MB·English

by  Hammer, Darrell P

The USSR
The Politics of Oligarchy
About the Book and Author
In this text, Dr. Hammer presents an analytical model of the Soviet
political system and its process of political decisionmaking, based on
the theory of "bureaucratic pluralism." He interprets the Soviet regime
as a product of three different influences: the Tsarist tradition of
nondemocratic rule, the revolutionary movement that overthrew Tsarism,
and the Stalinism of 1924-1953. Since the death of Stalin, the Soviet
regime has slowly evolved from a personal dictatorship into an oligarchical
system. According to the author, this transformation has permitted the
great Soviet bureaucracies, such as the military high command and the
economic managers, to increase their power and influence over poli-
cymaking and to pursue their own interests in addition to those of the
regime. From this perspective, the role of party leaders in the Politburo
appears to be that of political brokers among conflicting interests,
allocating resources among the various bureaucracies.
This second edition has been completely revised and updated to
reflect the realities of the Soviet system through the 27th Party Congress,
which met in February 1986. Dr. Hammer applies the model of bu-
reaucratic pluralism in the areas of public policy and economic planning,
illustrating the theme that the evolution of a powerful bureaucratic
organization has prevented the achievement of the original Leninist
vision. He discusses specific features of the Soviet society that deviate
from original principles (often based on dissident sources from within
the USSR) and examines the role of party leaders in this ideological
transition. Finally, he analyzes the rise of Gorbachev to power and the
first steps taken under his leadership, such as the anti-alcohol campaign
and efforts at economic reform. Because Dr. Hammer's analysis is
particularly valuable for understanding the Gorbachev regime and the
future of the Soviet system, this text is essential reading for all students
of Soviet politics.
Darrell P. Hammer is professor of political science at Indiana University.
He was formerly a senior scholar at the Russian Institute of Columbia
University and an exchange scholar in the USSR Academy of Sciences.
SECOND EDITION, FULLY REVISED AND UPDATED
The USSR
The Politics of Oligarchy
Darrell P. Hammer
~~ ~~o~;~~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
To Louise, Rebekah, and Owen
First published 1974 by Westview Press, Inc.
Published 2019 by Routledge
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hammer, Darrell P.
The USSR: the politics of oligarchy.
Includes index.
1. Soviet Union-Politics and govemment-1953-
2. Oligarchy. I. Title. II. Title: The U.S.S.R.
JN6511.H24 1986 320.947 85-22645
ISBN 13: 978-0-367-29701-5 (hbk)
Contents
List of Figures and Tables . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ~
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xlll
1 VIsion and Reality in Soviet Politics .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1
Visionary Marxism and Pragmatic Leninism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Authoritarian Politics ....................................... 6
The Bureaucratic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Twentieth-Century Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Russian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Soviet Russia Under Lenin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Soviet Union Under Stalin ................................. 26
Mter Stalin .............................................. 35
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 36
3 The Collective Society .................................... 37
Social Stratification . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . 38
Dimensions of Social Cleavage ............................. 39
Sovietization of the Village ................................ 46
Political Socialization ................................... , .. 48
Citizen, Party, and State .................................. 53
References ................................................ 56
4 Soviet Political Ideology and Doctrine ..................... 58
Ideology Versus Doctrine .................................. 58
Russian Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
v
vi Contents
Russian Socialism ......................................... 61
Marxism in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Leninism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Trotskyism ............................................... 67
Stalinism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Dissidence and Dissent .................................... 69
Soviet Ideology Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5 The Communist Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Party Composition ........................................ 77
CPSU Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
National Party Organization ............................... 84
The Apparatus ............................................ 88
Territorial Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Party Officials ............................................ 98
References ............................................... 100
6 The All-Union Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
The Supreme Soviet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Council of Ministers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Party and Bureaucracy ................................... 117
References·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7 Government and Administration in the Provinces . . . . . . . . . 121
Nationalities Policy ...................................... 122
Federal System in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Regional and Local Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Regional Power Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Future of Soviet Federalism ............................... 139
References ............................................... 141
8 From Brezhnev to Gorbachev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Succession Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Rise of Gorbachev ....................................... 150
Beginning of Transition .................................. 152
Andropov and Chemenko ................................ 154
Gorbachev as General Secretary ........................... 158
References ............................................... 162
Contents vii
9 Law Enforcement and Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Security Police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Law and Courts ......................................... 167
The Procuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
The MVD ............................................... 171
CPSU and Law Enforcement .............................. 172
Soviet Criminal Law ..................................... 173
Fight with Corruption. ................................... 175
Individual Rights ........................................ 177
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10 The Industrial and Military Bureaucracies ................. 183
Interest Groups and Bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Bureaucratic Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
The Military and the Political System ..................... 194
The Scientific Establishment .............................. 199
References ............................................... 202
11 Public Policy and the Welfare State ..................... 205
Social Services .......................................... 207
The Demographic Problem ............................... 214
Coping with Alcohol Abuse .. . . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 216
Managing Soviet Culture . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 218
References ............................................... 223
12 Bureaucratic Pluralism ................................... 225
Totalitarianism Versus Pluralism ........................... 227
Pluralist Approach ............. , ......................... 228
Argument Against Pluralism .............................. 231
Conflicts of Interest ...................................... 232
Party and Bureaucracy ................................... 233
Policy Process ............................................ 235
Conclusion .............................................. 238
References ............................................... 238
Afterword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Index ........................................................ 249
Figures and Tables
Figures
5.1 CPSU apparatus in a union republic ...................... 97
6.1 Dual subordination in the Soviet administrative
system ................................................. 115
11.1 USSR Ministry of Culture ............................... 220
Tables
1.1 Political leaders in the USSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1 Evaluation of occupations by Soviet citizens ............... 56
5.1 CPSU under Khrushchev and Brezhnev:
Social composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.2 CPSU under Khrushchev and Brezhnev:
Nationalities ............................................ 78
5.3 Education of CPSU members ............................. 79
5.4 CPSU members by age group ............................ 79
6.1 Foreign affairs committees of the Supreme
Soviet ................................................. 106
7.1 Major nationalities: A statistical profile ................... 129
7.2 Nationalities in the union republics ...................... 130
7.3 CPSU membership by nationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.1 Soviet leadership in January 1982 ........................ 149
8.2 Political standing of Soviet leadership in
1984 and 1985 ......................................... 158
8.3 Soviet leadership in November 1985 ..................... 160
10.1 Soviet economic growth ................................. 188
11.1 Comparative figures for population growth ................ 215
A.1 Soviet leadership in March 1986 ......................... 246
viii
Preface
This book is a political analysis of the Soviet Union, completely
revised and updated from the first edition that appeared in 1974. Although
the contemporary situation is emphasized, I have provided background
~:m the Tsarist system, the revolutionary movement, and the Stalinist
era, essential to an understanding of the Soviet political system today.
Indeed, Stalinism is one of the major issues of contemporary Soviet
life, and it cannot be ignored by Western analysts as it has been by
Soviet writers. The reader will find the main thesis of this book set out
in Chapter 1: Lenin embarked on a visionary program that could not
possibly have been carried out; as a realist, he saw the impossibility of
the task early in the history of the USSR, and the contradiction between
the original vision (in whose name the Communist party still holds
power) and the reality of Soviet politics still has not been resolved.
The analysis falls into four parts. Chapters 1 through 4 are an
examination of historical, cultural, and social background of the Soviet
political system. In Chapters 5 through 7 the Soviet institutions are
depicted-the Communist party, the national government, and the re-
gional and republic systems. Chapter 8 discusses the intriguing topic
of elite politics:-the politics of succession by which Soviet leaders are
chosen. The leaders, and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in par-
ticular, are not the central figures in this book: The center of the analysis
is the historical tradition and the institutional framework that tradition
produced. Beginning in Chapter 9, policy issues and the institutions
that manage public policy are examined.
I owe thanks to many people who helped in the development of this
new edition but most particularly to the hundreds of students at Indiana
University, Bloomington, who have patiently shared in my efforts to
understand the Soviet political system. My thanks go also to the
International Research and Exchanges Board, under whose auspices I
spent several months in the Soviet Union getting reacquainted with the
country. Although many have contributed to the pages that follow, the
ix