Using Literature in Reading English as Second/Foreign Language Aly Anwar Amer Tanta ...

18 Pages·2012·0.21 MB·English

Using Literature in Reading English as Second/Foreign Language

Aly Anwar Amer
Tanta University, Egypt
[email protected]
2012
Using Literature in Reading English as Second/Foreign Language

Aly Anwar Amer
Tanta University, Egypt
[email protected]
2012

Abstract
Literature has long been used as a source for reading materials in English as a first
language (L1). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in utilizing literature in second
language (L2) classrooms. The present article assumes that using literature in L2 reading can
have the same effect as in L1. Integrating literature into L2 learning can create a learning
environment that will provide comprehensible input and a low affective filter. Literary texts may
be used in both extensive and intensive reading. Use of different literary genres is discussed with
a special focus on the benefits of using stories.
Introduction
According to Langer (1995, p. 5): “Literature plays a critical role in our life, often without
our notice. It helps us to explore both ourselves and others, to define and redefine who we are,
who we might become, and how the world might be…… In its best sense, literature is
intellectually provocative as well as humanizing, allowing to use various angles of vision to
examine thoughts, beliefs, and actions.”

Langer (1997, p. 613) describes the traditional second language classroom in which
literature is absent. In such classroom, learners do not have a chance to practice language
through personal and meaningful engagement and are often limited to studying language in texts
through low-level literal questions. Learners “are often given short passages and fill in exercises
meant to develop their English skills before being provided with context that permits them to use
those skills in interesting and meaningful ways.” Consequently, such reading experience can
have a negative effect on students‟ attitude to and confidence in reading authentic materials, and
may often lead to reluctance in reading in English for pleasure (Cho and Krashen, 2001).

Benefits of Using Literature
With reference to the benefits of using literature in language learning, Collie and Slater
(1990, p. 3) state that there are four reasons for using literature in the classroom: valuable
authentic material, cultural enrichment, language enrichment and personal involvement.
Furthermore, Heath (1996, p. 776) indicates that “Literature has no rival in its power to create
natural repetition, reflection on language and how it works, and attention to audience response on
the part of learners.” Thus, integrating literature into L2 learning can create a learning
environment that will provide comprehensible input and a low affective filter (Rodrigo et al.,
2004).

Strong (1996, p. 291) also argues that literature should form an important part of any
language teaching class because it offers a rich source for learning reading. Literature may form
part of communicative pedagogy in three different ways: 1) providing a context for in which to
develop students‟ reading strategies and knowledge of non-fiction and literary texts; 2) forming
the basis for an extensive reading program with the attendant acquisition of new vocabulary as
well as grammatical forms; 3) offering the opportunity to explore cross-cultural values.

Widdowson (1977, p. 36) draws our attention to the important point that literary texts have
a unique advantage over non-literary ones. Literary texts depend heavily on the reader‟s
interpretation. A literary work is “separate, self-contained” with its language structured into
“patterns of recurring sounds, structures and meanings” on symbolic and thematic levels.
Recent research shows that literature can play a positive role in L2 learning (Cho, Ahn, and
Krashen, 2005; Hess, 2006). Learners show increase in vocabulary (Wang and Guthrie, 2004),
and significant gain in reading comprehension (Holden, 2003). In addition, literature provides L2
learners with a combination of pleasurable and comprehensible texts (Krashen, 2004). This will
help learners to develop a positive attitude towards reading in a second language. This positive
attitudinal change is likely to lead to more independent reading which can be beneficial for their
language acquisition (Kim, 2004). According to Dornyei (2005, p. 112), using literature in the
classroom can help in “creating an overall positive motivational climate in the classroom.”
Creating a rich literature second language environment will enhance learners‟ intrinsic reading
motivation (Morrow, 2004).

Literature presents a rich source of vocabulary. Beck and McKeown‟s (2001) research
showed that explicit vocabulary activities resulted in a significant increase in vocabulary. Dixon-
Krauss (2002) and Kuhn and Stahl (1998) reviewed research that investigated the effect of
literary text context on vocabulary development. They concluded that the vast majority of
learned words did not come from direct instruction but were learned incidentally. Research in
second language shows similar results (Wang and Guthrie, 2004; Holden, 2003).

Literature and Culture
Literature offers a rich resource for not only language but also culture and our lives (Paran,
2006). Rich cultural information is embedded in literature (McNicholls, 2006). Children's
literature is a powerful tool to teach children about their own culture, themselves, the world, and
others (Hancock, 2000). Literature can enhance L2 learners‟ critical thinking skills (Butler,
2006). Through literature, they can appreciate the similarities and tolerate the differences
between their culture and other cultures. They can realize that “there is no one right way to think
and feel, and no society can claim to have all of the right answers; we each gain perspective and
insight into our world by examining the perspective of other societies and cultures (Leahy and
Lo, 1997, p. 222). Studying literature from another culture gives learners insight into the values
and customs of other places. Literature is a powerful tool in teaching the relativity of cultural
values and the inherent problems in cross-cultural communication (Strong, 1996, p. 303).
Thus, exposure to literature stimulates learners to reflect on concepts, recognize real life
problems, explore causes and solutions, and compare their values and life styles with other
cultures. This can provide teachers and learners, in the language classroom, with an authentic
and rich context for discussion about their cultural values and traditions in contrast with other
cultures. This, in turn, may encourage learners to avoid ethnocentrism and develop intercultural
competence.

From a sociolinguistic point of view, an important reason for using literature in language
teaching and learning is its sociolinguistic richness. Literature reflects the linguistic features of
the social classes and the geographical areas of the culture. People speak differently in different
situations, occasions, and places (i.e. formal, informal, dialects, colloquial, etc.). Thus, literature
offers “genuine samples of a very wide range of styles, registers, and text-types at different
levels of difficulty” (Duff and Maley, 2007, p. 6).

As for approaches to exploring culture, Banks (1989) proposes four instructional
approaches: decision-making and social action approach, transformation approach, additive
approach, and contributions approach. The decision-making and social action approach invites
students to study important social issues and take action to solve problems by reading culturally
conscious literature. The transformation approach modifies literature focus units to promote the
study of historical events and contemporary issues from culturally diverse points of view. The
additive approach connects multicultural literature to an existing literature focus unit. The
contributions approach creates a cultural connection through literature with a special holiday or
occasion.

Literary Genres
The variety of literary genres (e.g. poetry, story, novel, drama, etc.) that literature offers is
a good source of rich language exposure, especially in the ESL classroom (Heath, 1996). The
present paper will focus on using stories/narrative texts in second language reading.
Drama
Using drama, for example, can enhance and accelerate learners‟ oral skills acquisition.
Dramatic activities (e.g. role-play, improvisation, dramatization, miming) raise learners‟
awareness of text structure, facilitate their comprehension, and increase their appreciation of
literary texts.
Poetry
Poetry plays a significant role in second language development. Hadaway, et al (2001, p.
799) identified the following benefits of using poetry in the second language classroom: (a)
reading of poetry through reading aloud and choral reading promotes fluency; (b) the language of
poetry is manageable due to short lines and brevity, which makes it less intimidating; (c) rhythm,
repetition, and rhyme in poetry help readers grasp the meaning with more ease; (d) poetry can
serve as a powerful springboard for the introductions of concepts and content across the
curriculum; (e) by providing a source of brief character sketches, scenes, and stories, poetry can
serve as a prompt of narratives – oral and written; and (f) poetry offers a beginning for a variety
of writing opportunities.

Elster (2000) also stated that poetry is a rich language resource, which promotes the
exploration of sound, word association, and image, while extending the semantic resources
available to learners. In addition to appreciating the aesthetic function of poetry, learners develop
their critical thinking and imagination skills. Dramatizing poetry enhances learners‟ language
proficiency and promotes their confidence in using English as a communicative tool (Elting and
Firkins, 2006).

Story

The story is a universal literary genre across all cultures of the world. Owing to this
universality, it is a natural part of language learning experiences of people in every culture. It is
“one of the most fundamental uses of language known to humans” (Butler, 2006, p. 19). Thus,
stories can be a natural bridge between cultures. According to Ellis (2000), stories are a powerful
educational tool. Hence, using stories in second language classrooms can provide rich, authentic
and meaningful context for reading.
Reading Stories Aloud to Children
Research indicates that literature can be used to enhance the four language skills. Several
studies in L1 explicitly show the benefit of using stories in developing the listening and reading
abilities of children through reading stories aloud to them. Reading aloud to children prepares
them for learning to read and builds the foundation of literacy learning. It promotes their oral
language ability that affects their reading skills, develops their knowledge background, exposes
them to new word meanings, and promotes incidental learning (Meyer and Wardrop, 1994).
Fisher and Medvic (2003) identified seven components of an effective story read-aloud:

1. Books appropriate to students‟ interests and that match students‟ developmental,
emotional and social levels.
2. Previewing and practice of selection by the teacher.
3. The establishment of a clear purpose for the read-aloud.
4. Teacher modeling of fluent oral reading.
5. Use of animation and expression during the read-alouds.
6. Periodic and thoughtful questioning of students to focus on specifics of text.
7. Connections to independent reading and writing.

Besides, reading to children sparks their imagination and gives them ideas to write about in
the future. It also develops processes that are vital to reading, i.e. knowledge building and critical
thinking skills. In addition, it helps to enhance the emotional well-being of children and helps to
develop their self-confidence (Cheng, 2001). Rothlein and Meinbach (1991, p. 4) stated that
“Reading aloud to children is a valuable activity that improves listening, verbal, and written
skills and fosters a lifetime love of books and reading.” Cudd and Roberts (1993) pointed out
that children who do not listen to or read books do not have exposure to the complex syntax
found in written language and to the rich vocabulary that comprises literature. Lack of this
meaningful exposure negatively affects children‟s future writing ability because they lack
sufficient concepts, vocabulary and language structures.
Huck (1992, p. 4) also mentions other benefits that children gain from listening to adults
reading to them: (a) children learn that reading is pleasurable; (b) children learn about the
structure of stories; (c) children learn the concept behind print; (d) children begin to build a
frame of reference for literature; and (e) children learn new words and increase their vocabulary.

In second language classrooms, reading aloud by the teacher is more important for readers,
especially at the early stage of learning the language. According to Amer (1997), when learners
read to themselves, they tend to read word by word due to their limited linguistic competence.
Guided by their anxiety to understand each word, they tend to break sentences into unmeaningful
parts while they read. Hence, regular reading aloud by the teacher helps EFL readers discover
units of meaning that should be read as phrases rather than word by word. It also helps readers to
see reading as a continuous, meaningful process of building larger semantic units rather than
focusing on graphic cues. With appropriate practice readers gradually realize that they can
achieve a higher level of comprehension by reading larger meaningful units of texts rather than
focusing on individual units. The proper production by the teacher of punctuation signals, stress,
and intonation, plays an important role in this process.

Storytelling

According to Roney (2009), storytelling is a process in which a person (the teller) uses
narrative structure and mental imagery to communicate with the audience. Storytelling is a
medium in which learners use visualization and imagery skills (Bell, 1991). It requires the ability
to picture a person, a scene, a setting, and a situation as a mental image. According to Malo and
Bullard (2000), through words, the listening learners create mental images, which are essential
for understanding the story.
Strong and North (1996), on the other hand, define storytelling as a process in which
learners practice categorizing, predicting, summarizing, organizing, comparing and contrasting
information. Language learning takes place each time a story is told . In their opinion,
storytelling requires critical thinking skills, e.g. being able to identify the parts of the story and
how they relate to the whole, and being able to organize thoughts into a logical sequence.

Mental Imagery (Picturing or Visualization)
It has been mentioned above that literature sparks learners‟ imagination. This can be
achieved through picturing or mental imagery. When readers construct mental images, they
activate their prior knowledge and develop critical thinking skills. This constructive process
stimulates readers to construct relations between the parts of the text and the learners‟ knowledge
and experiences (Gambrell and Jawitz, 1993).

According to Hibbing and Rankin-Erickson (2003), visualizing enhances inferential
thinking. When we visualize, we are inferring, but with mental images rather than words. When
children are taught to form mental images while reading, they gain better recall and develop their
abilities make inferences and prediction. They also indicated that teacher-generated drawings
enhance children‟s ability to visualize story content and structure. Gambrell and Jawitz (1993),
on the other hand, indicated that illustrations to the text play a similar role to mental images.
Instructional Approaches to Teaching Stories

There are two pedagogically effective approaches to teaching stories/narrative texts in
English as a mother tongue: the “Story Grammar Approach” (SGA) and the “Reader Response
Approach” (RRA). There has been currently an increasing interest in utilizing these two
approaches in second language reading.

Story Grammar, Story Schema and Story Maps

Research shows that learners who have a good understanding of narrative text structure
have fewer problems comprehending this text type (Dymock and Nicholson, 1999). Research
also suggests that many learners require explicit instruction in how to comprehend narrative text
(Calfee and Patrick, 1995; Smolkin and Donovan, 2002). Narrative text structure is known as
story grammar. A story grammar is the system of rules used for describing the internal structure
of the story, i.e. the story parts, arrangements of the parts, and how the parts are related. A story
may be composed of several episodes, each consisting of a setting, characters, a problem,
action, and the resolution. A story schema, on the other, is the mental representation that readers
have of story parts and their relationships.
One technique that uses story grammar components to enhance comprehension of narrative
texts is story maps (Appendix 1). Story maps direct learners‟ attention to the story structure.
They provide a visual or graphic display for key information in narrative texts. These maps
prompt learners to identify story elements and provide space for them to record this information.
Story maps may be used before reading a story to elicit prior knowledge and facilitate
discussion. They may be used while reading the story to guide readers to record significant
information. Moreover, they serve as a review after reading (Boulineau et al, 2004).
It is noteworthy that story maps can be generated using computer programs. Two programs
written to produce maps are Inspiration, which is for middle school and older children, and
kidspiration, which is for younger readers. Both programs work well in a small group or whole
class setting when the visual display is presented through a large screen monitor or projected on
a screen. Maps may be printed out for readers to work independently. Another feature of the two
programs is that not only can the information be viewed as a map, but it can also be viewed as an
outline. This feature helps readers make a connection between the graphic representation and its
outline format (Amer, 2003, p. 67).
In general, explicit instruction in both story grammar and the use of story maps has
resulted in positive effects on reading comprehension skills of elementary, secondary, and
learners with and without learning disabilities (Gardill and Jitendra, 1999).

Story grammar research provides teachers with an excellent tool for teaching awareness of
narrative text structure. Teachers may teach learners (Dymock, 2007):

1. That the setting establishes where and when the story takes place.
2. That characters can be classified as major and minor.
3. How to analyze individual characters, focusing on their appearance and
personality, and how to compare and contrast characters.
4. How to analyze the overall plot and that it consists of four parts:
 Problem. What is the problem in the story?
 Response. How do characters respond to the problem?
 Action. What do characters do about the problem?
 Outcome. What is the outcome?
5. How to analyze individual episodes (i.e., subplot). Diagrams are used to
enable the reader to visualize the episode analysis.
6. That the theme is the message that underlies the story. The theme often
explains the motives of the characters or comments on social relationships
or society in general. The theme is often left to the reader to interpret. Ask
your pupils, “Why did the author write the story?”

Teachers also may use guiding questions based on the story grammar as stated by Cooper
(1986, p. 382-384):
Setting: Where did the story happen?
When did the story happen?
Characters: Who was the story about?
Who were the people in the story?
Who was the most important person in the story?
Problem: Did the people have a problem?
What was the big problem that the story was about?
Action: What did the people do to solve the problem?
What were the important things that happened in the story?
Resolution: How did the people solve the problem?
How did the story end?
Theme: What lesson could we learn from the story?

Reader Response Approach

In many language classrooms, the story is not being read as literature but as a piece of
information (Carlisle 2000, p. 13). Hence, the teaching of literature is seen as an information-
gathering exercise rather than an aesthetic experience in which the reader has a response to the
event, which involves the free expression of his thoughts and feelings about the text (Rosenblatt,
1985, p. 40). Benton and Fox (1990, pp. 2-18) identify four elements of response to text:
Anticipating/retrospecting: guesses about what is going to happen next, what events lead to the
current situation, and how the book is going to end; picturing: images that come into the mind‟s
eye, such as a character‟s face or a scene described in the book; interacting: opinions on a
character‟s personality and actions or feelings about events and situations; evaluating :
comments on the skill of the writer.

According to Rosenblatt, (2005), literature must be experienced by learners. The Reader
Response Approach encourages learners to respond to the text and express their own ideas,
opinions and feelings freely. It views the reading process as a transaction between the reader and
the text, in which the reader, with his past experiences, beliefs, and values, interacts with the text,
and meaning is determined as the result of this transaction (Ali, 1994, p. 290). In other words,
readers question the author‟s values against their own values; they differentiate between fiction
and reality; they are able to discuss and evaluate forms of narration and cultural values of the
implied author (Thomson, 1987). Thus, reading is a reflective and creative process and meaning
is self-constructed.

According to Gibson (2012, p. 12), “Beginning with the transactional relationships to the
text, students are able to see themselves in relation to the characters and actions of the text.
Through further reflection and opportunity to intelligently question, challenge and appreciate
values and ideas within the text, students begin to form a position. This is further developed by
application of critical perspectives, an element not inherent in Rosenblatt‟s theory but necessary
for the transition from the process of reading to the process of thinking critically”.

In the classroom, teachers should enable learners to realize that the main concern, while
reading a story, is not “What they understand” but “how they feel.” When the teacher asks
learners to respond, he/she is asking them to go deeper, ask critical questions, argue with the
author, and make connections to their own lives (Harvey and Goudvis (2000, p. 38). Hence, the
teacher should accept “multiple interpretations” to a text rather than just one “correct
interpretation” (Rosenblatt, 1995). From a pedagogic perspective, “multiple interpretations”
allow for creative and critical thinking to take place in an atmosphere where there are no threats
or any compulsion to learn for the “correct” answer or to compete for the “best” interpretation.

Before using the RRA in classrooms, teachers should first introduce the RRA. They should
explain to students the main assumptions underlying the RRA outlined above. Teachers should
discuss with their learners the difference between “reading literature” and “reading for
information”. Students should be consciously aware of their contribution to the text.
Several activities and techniques have been used to implement the RRA in language
classrooms (cited in Amer, 2003): Reading Logs (Benton and Fox, 1985; Carlisle, 2000);
Response Journal (Sheridan, 1991); Writing Prompts (Pritchard, 1993); Critical Questioning
and Writing (Probst, 1994; Hirvela, 1996); Self-questioning (Davis,1989); Role-play, Drama and
Letter-writing (Elliot, 1990; Baxter, 1999); Rewriting Narratives from Another Character’s
Point of View (Oster, 1989); The Developmental Model of Reader-Response Approach
(Thomson, 1987). It is not the purpose of this paper to present a detailed review of such activities
and techniques. Only one activity is presented as an example (Thomson, 1987): The
Developmental Model of Reader-Response Approach (Figure 1).

Level 1: Literal understanding
Students give summaries of the events of the story. Understanding of the story is at a very
superficial level. Students are merely narrating the information in the text.

Level 2: Empathy
Students are involved in the story. They identify some aspects of the story with their own
lives. They also have imaginative sympathy with one of the characters in the story, and this
sympathy can range from reacting with the character to imagining how the character feels.

Level 3: Analogy
From the readings, students make connections between the characters and their lives, and
from this, they learn about their own lives.

Level 4: Interpretation
Students reflect on the significance of events and behaviours in the text. Their reflections
lead to generalizations and evaluations of the characters and theme of the story.

Level 5: Evaluation of fiction
Students view text as a construct. They question the author‟s values against their own values;
they differentiate between fiction and reality; they are able to discuss and evaluate forms of
narration and social and cultural values of the implied author.

Level 6: Recognition
Students make a conscious effort to consider their relationship with the text; they gain
implications of constructedness (aspects of level 5) for their own self-understanding. They
become more aware of their reading process and how they arrive at the meaning of a text. They
are also able to evaluate their relationship with the implied reader.
Figure (1): Developmental model of a reader-response approach

It is noteworthy that the Story Grammar Approach and Reader Response Approach should
be seen as complementing each other rather than in opposition to each other. The SGA may be
used with beginners and intermediate learners since they may not possess the linguistic ability to
express themselves freely. It may be also used with advanced learners as an introductory activity
to Reader Response. Besides, SGA focuses on the cognitive aspect of learning whereas RR