US education. Primary and secondary schools. Higher education

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EDUCATI OIV
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PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS
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America has had a great respect for education from its earliest
times. Education is now the most important factor in determining a
person's social role and economic prospects. Universities were
founded in the earliest days of the settlers who had come across from
England. Harvard College was founded by religious refugees from
ll ".I:il, Cambridge, England in 1636, only fifteen years after the Pilgrim
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Fathers had landed, and there were eight other colleges before 1776,
though for a long time they had few students. Religious bodies were
also very active in developing elementary and secondary schools, and
soon after 1800 progress was made towards universal education paid
for from taxes. Except in the South, America was before Europe in
providing schools for all children, and more recently in providing
free education up to the age of eighteen.
Under the United States Constitution, the Federal goverrunent has
no power to make laws in the field of education; each state is fully
responsible within its own.territory. The Federal.government can
give financial help, and new laws have vastly increased its powers to
help in this field. The Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
headed by a member of the Cabinet, is responsible for these
functions at federal level. Since 1960 it has contributed ever-
increasing amounts of federal funds to local programmes at all levels,
including special assistance to schools in disadvantaged areas. Total
public expenditure on education doubled in real terms up to 1980, to
an amount twice as great per person as in any Western European
country. However, during the 1980s, federal government
contributions were cut, and in most states the total public
expenditure per student in real terms was less in 1987 than in 1977.
Stucjents at school liach statc has an educational administration, not subject to federal
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Edueatlon -/€f-fi ' Prlmrry end Socondary $ohoolr
control, and thc statc uuthoritics lay down generul ltrlrteipler c()mpctitivc kleat, nrrtl t;rritc u l'cw bccomc criminals, but it is not lair
concerning the organisation of schools and such muttcrl rtn tltc ugcs to soy thut thc nvntenr I'rrils. lt probably does succeed in making most
of compulsory education. Schools are providcd and munng*l by locul pcople stlciuhle untl rcncly to help one another both in material ways
community boards of education. A fairly large city has a board of and through kindncss and friendliness.
its own, and otherwise a board may cover the area of a county or Partly because fbr several generations many children have had
of several local communities. All states have for somq time had foreign-born parents, schools have been used to build up a sense of
compulsory school-attendance up to the age of sixteen, and some Americanness. For many decades the school day began in the
beyond that, but the laws are not everywhere enforced with the same classroom with the flag salute. One child held up the United States
vigour. \il7ith so much local control the standards of education flag and all recited tggether: 'I pledge my allegiance to the flag of the
provided in different parts of the United States are by no means United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands,
uniform. In the South the authorities spend less per pupil than in one nation, under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.'
most other parts; more people are illiterate (having attended school In 1942 the Supreme Court ruled that no child should be obliged to
irregularly or not at all, in spite of the law), more leave school early, take part in the flag salute, and since then it has restricted this
fewer go to universities. practice as well as religious prayers. But in most places a majority of
Most children attend mixed schools, with boys and girls together parents want to keep these traditions alive.
all through the school time up to the age of eighteen, though there The practice of obliging children to travel long distances, so that
are a few separate schools for the older pupils. Education in nearly schools may be racially more mixed than their immediate
all parts of the United States is comprehensive, in that there is no neighbourhoods, has been unpopular. But there have always been
selection of children who attend full-scale secondary schools. many children who have needed to travel quite long distances to
Distinctions within the educational system are based in part on the school each day, and the school bus is a long-established institution,
use of private institutions by the few who can pay for them and think much older than court-directed busing. The school bus is painted
it worth while to do so, and, more important, on the different social yellow, with the words 'School Bus' in enormous letters along its
characteristics of the areas in which schools are placed. Racial factors sides. $7hen it stops, all other traffic must stop. It flashes lights and
may be involved, although segregation has been formally abandoned. waves arms marked 'Stop' to make this absolutely clear. Thus the
Elementary education begins at the age of six. At this stage four- children, while being themselves protected, daily see the community
fifths of all the teachers are women, mostly married. The atmosphere impose upon itself a well-justified and symbolically-dramatised
is usually very friendly, and the teachers have for a long time now discipline.
accepted the idea that the important thing is to make the children School and home are closely linked, and there is, ideally at least, a
happy and interested. The old rigid and authoritarian methods of sense of partnership between teachers and parents. In some places it
education were discredited in America rather a long time ago - so is the practice for the teacher to stay in the classroom for half an
much so that many people now think that education has gone too far hour at the end of the school day, to be available for any parent who
in the direction of trying to make children happy and interested wishes to come to talk to him or her about a child, and there is no
rather than giving them actual instruction. need for the parent to make any kind of formal arrangements with
The social education of young children tries to make them accept the head teacher before going to see the class teacher.
the need for human beings in a society to work together for their There is a strong tradition by which every school is closely
common good in all sorts of ways. The emphasis is on cooperation identified with its community, both through the elected local school
rather than competition throughout most of this process. This may board and through the parent teachers' associations. In big cities this
seem curious, in view of the general idea that American society is tradition has been weakened by the sheer problems of large scale
highly competitive, but the need for making people sociable in this organisation, and the vast bureaucracies have become unpopular. The
sense has come to be regarded as one of the main functitlns of practice of busing children damages the link between community and
education. In spite of all this most Americans do grtlw up with school, and strengthens the bureaucratic barriers between them.
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Edtrcation HlEhor Eduertlon
'l'here has bccn bittcr argumcnt; thc hurcuucrucics lruve hccrr licrt,clv providcd thut tlrcy lrnvc grurrictl tlrrough all ol'tlrc higlr sclrool cour$e$
criticised; parent-teachers' associations havc dcmanded nrorc up to thc finul or twcll'tlr grldc, cvcn if they havc obtaincd ruthcr low
influence. Some parents' organisations have been suspicious ol' minimum pass marks in thcir high school courses. High schools
'radicalism' among teachers, and have interfered in the curricula ol' generally organise much activity outside the classroom, for example,
their schools, mainly in a conservative direction. Parents' societies to which the pupils may belong, orchestras and brass bands,
organisations have objected to the use of books which they found to and there is also organised school sport. Every large high school has
be'communistic','racist','obscene','heretical' or'anti-American'. its football team and also teams for basketball, baseball and other
Although there is so much diversity in the control and organisation sports. The football team is perhaps the most important, supported
of schools) everyone knows what is meant by first grade, second by cheerleaders, a marching band and major"ettes.
grade and twelfth grade, with one grade for each year. The teaching One of the characteristics of high school education is its great
profession is not quite so simply arranged. It may be difficult for a breadth. Pupils do not specialise in any particular direction, and they
teacher to get his or her qualifications from one state recognised in take classes in all kinds of subjects all through the high school period.
another state, as each state has its own arrangements for training They are given an immense choice of academic and non-academic
teachers. Teachers for the younger children have often been trained courses. Sometimes pupils complain that the progress is very slow
in schools of education from the age of eighteenl senior teachers have and that they do not learn very much, but this is a factor connected
normally completed university degrees, with teacher-training forming with the inclusion of children of all levels of academic ability in the
part of the university curriculum at the later stages. Education may same school and in the same class. Children who are rather backward
be respected and highly valued, but teachers are not. Their pay and in learning are often allowed to go on to the next grade even though
prestige, in relation to other professions, are low in comparison with their work suggests that they should repeat a grade.
the general standards of Europe. Although the state school systems are intended to provide equal
Secondary education is in one or two stages. From the age of opportunity for all, there are inevitably great differences between
eleven or twelve to eighteen the term 'high school' is generally used, schools. Many high schools in the central city areas include large
though the first three years of this are called junior high school and proportions of pupils who are reluctant to go to school at all. Juvenile
the senior classes are called senior high school. Where the local delinquency is high among pupils in schools of this type, and
population is big enough, the senior high schools may be separate teachers often have a very difficult job.
institutions. America is remarkable for the number of people who Because many big city high schools have a reputation for
stay at school until they are eighteen; four-fifths of all young people roughness, middle-class parents are anxious to place their children in
aged seventeen are still at school, and more than half of those aged schools in which a different atmosphere will predominate. Such
eighteen. As full high school education up ro the age of eighteen is people tend to live in suburbs, and a suburban high school is likely to
available to everyone, there is no problem about gaining admission to be dominated by pupils striving towards university entrance. There
a senior high school, though in some places there are selective schools are a few expensive private schools but there is no significant
or classes for children who show special academic ability. The idea of tradition of privileged or prestigious private education below the level
total equality of opportunity for all people creares a barrier against of the university. On the other hand, some unfavourable impressions
such segregation, though there are inevitably many people, of the public system, together with devices aimed at increasing the
particularly in the educational world, who think that such segregation social and racial 'mix' in public schools since the 1960s, have tended
is desirable, and current opinion is mainly in favour of some to stimulate private education in the past few years.
selectivity on academic grounds.
once children have reached high school they are very conscious of f 2 HIGHER EDUCATION
the need to obtain good marks in their high school work if they wish
to go on to a university of high reputation. Some universitics urc vcry For a very long time America has led the world in higher education,
selective in their admission, while others will admit $ny rtudents quantitatively at least. In 1825 England still had only two
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Education Higher Education
universities, Oxford and Cambridge. 'l'he Unitcd Stutcr ulreurly hutl
over fifty colleges for a smaller population. By now, in udditit)n t(t
hundreds of junior colleges (with two-year courses), teachers' collcgcs
and special schools, there are over 2,000 universities, colleges or other
institutions with four-year courses leading to bachelors' degrees,
though only some of these provide postgraduate work as well, for
masters' degrees and doctorates.
Nearly half of all people aged nineteen are in full-time education,
but only half of these successfully complete full four-year courses for
bachelors' degrees. Some attend iunior colleges with two-year courses
(from which they may transfer); most start full four-year degree
courses. Most students receive federal loans to cover part of the cost
of their studies; much smaller numbers receive federal grants, or
scholarships or bursaries from other sources. Virtually all pay part of
their costs themselves, from family contributions or from part-time
work or both.
Most students aiming at bachelors' degrees take the four years
A university graduation ceremony.
(freshman, sophomore, junior and senior) consecutively at the same
institution, but some interrupt their courses. Some start late in life institutions in the California state system, but there are many dozens
and may spread their courses over several years. For each stage of the of other campuses in that system. Other states have parallel systems,
course it is necessary to gain adequate average grades over a number often with one principal campus, with up to 50,000 students, in a
of courses, and credits gained at one stage can be accepted for a later small town in which the university is the main focus of activity. Most
stage after an interval, if necessary with change from one institution big cities have their own city-funded universities - in some cases with
to another. For the freshman year, courses usually cover a wide several campuses - often separate from the state system. In general
range, and with each later year there is scope for more specialisation. state and city colleges now charge tuition fees which cover a minor
Essentially, the system by which a person becomes a college graduate part of their costs, at least for state or local residents - though
is a progression from that which makes him or her a high school students from other states pay several times as much.
graduate. The oldest, and in some ways the most prestigious, colleges are
About one-fifth of college graduates continue with studies for private, funded partly from their endowments, partly by
masters' or doctors' degrees, in their own major subjects or for contributions from business and, above all, former students. A few
professional qualifications in law, medicine, business) etc., which receive some state or city grants as well. But in general they need to
involve two to four postgraduate years. Postgraduate schools admit charge high fees for tuition, averaging about five times the rates
students on the basis of their grades in bachelors' degree studies, and charged by equivalent state colleges for local residents.
require minimum-level passes in appropriate preparatory subjects. Some of the best-known private universities are the oldest ones in
Most college students are in 'public' institutions, a minority in the Northeast, known informally as the Ivy League. These include
'private' ones. Every state has its own full university system, and in a Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The research carried on at Harvard
big state there are many separate state campuses, general and special, and at its newer neighbour in Cambridge, the Massachusetts
at different levels. In terms of research output, and of Nobel prizes Institute of Technology, has contributed to the prosperity of the
won by academic staff, the most prestigious is the University of Boston area, though other private and public universities nearby also
California at Berkeley (across the bay from San Francisco). It, and have some share in this development.
the University's campus at Los Angeles, are the two mgior These colleges are all quite small, but there are also the yet smaller
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institutions of the Little Ivy League, as well as many ltutrdretlr ol ccluctttiott, rttttl lirr tlrc trrtlilionnl Amcricans, respcct fbr lcarning is
other private colleges all over the United States. 'l'heir varicty is rcinfirrcccl hv ir tloclrinc that it is an investment that brings the
extreme. Some students prefer a small college for the sake ol'thc community nn cconomic return as well as social and cultural
closer contact with the professors than in the state colleges, some for improvcmcnt.
religious or other reasons. But some of their graduates go on to State Russian technological success has brought an unpleasant shock to
university postgraduate courses. American pride. Even the most conservative elements are impressed
Until 1960 most of the private institutions, including the small by the signs that the Russians have equalled or even surpassed the
liberal arts colleges, were for either men or women only. Since then Americans in achievements which depend on a great mass of trained
there has been a revolutionary change. By now almost all the former talent and skill, and the first reaction to the Russian achievements in
men's colleges have become coeducational and the most selective of space was a new support for greater efforts in the educational field.
them may have raised their academic standards by attracting many of In the 1960s much of the impetus came from claims rhat part of
the cleverest women. About three hundred former women'S colleges the population (mainly black) enjoyed inferior access to education,
now take men as well, and some of them are finding that the men and to diplomas and degrees, because of the conditions and the
dominate the staff and student life. In 1987 about a hundred all- nature of society. Tremendous efforts were made to counteract the
female colleges were still resisting the trend of change, defending effects of social disadvantage, but the mixture of values caused
their special role in the educational system but suffering a decline in confusion, and weakened the old concern with excellence.
applications for admission. Conversion to coeducation is still The results of the vast increase in educational expenditure have
continuing. Meanwhile, the number of women students had increased been disappointing. In 1976 the National Centre for Education
until by the mid-1980s they outnumbered the men' Statistics in the Department of Health, Education and $7elfare,
The wave of disorderly student protest of the 1960s seems to have produced a survey, The Condition of Education It showed that
subsided. It began with support for the civil rights movement of between 1963 and 1975 the average scores by high school seniors (18
that time, in the last years of race discrimination. Then came year-olds) in the Scholastic Aptitude tests (graded on a scale from
demonstrations against the Vietnam war) then demands for more 800 to 200) had fallen from 478 to 434 in mathematics and from 502
student participation in the running of the universities, and demands to 472 in reading and writing. A disturbing number of students were
for new types of courses such as black studies. There were objections far below any reasonable standard after twelve years of school, and
to examinations, and to the competitiveness they engender. But since some of these were nevertheless going forward to higher education.
the early 1970s there has been a change, with students aiming again More than a quarter of the first-year students in Ohio State
at academic success within the system. At the same time, there have University were below minimum competence in mathematics and
been changes in the courses chosen' with a new preference for types English, and remedial courses were provided for them. There was a
of study which can be expected to be useful for careers in business. fear that the vast efforts on behalf of the disadvantaged had produced
There is less interest in liberal arts. On the other hand, a surge of few benefits, and that the quality of the system as a whole had
interest in computer studies fell away when the computer industry declined. A new concern with the pursuit of excellence and a new
ran into trouble. A decline in concern with social issues can be seen insistence on high standards, both in technology and in other fields,
from a comparison of the attitudes expressed by students in L972 and has lately brought some improvement to the system as a whole,
1982 (as shown by the survey quoted on page 136)' though surveys of the mid-1980s found that more than one in ten of
The individual young person knows that his or her prospects of seventeen year-olds could not read and write well enough to write
success in life depend on education more than on any other single answers to a simple set of questions such as those on a job-
factor. So there is an ever-increasing demand for educational application form. In January 1987, President Reagan proposed that
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opportunities. At the same time, it is generally recognised that even : there should be a minimum high school curriculum of four years of
from the material point of view, economic development up till now !i English. In a document supporting his State of the Union message he
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has owed much to the skills and abilities which Srow through :Il put forward the aim of 'raising literacy standards dramatically'.
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Education
CHANGING VIEWS OF COLLEGE FRESHMEN, 1 972 82 I low l'ur r[r llte tcilrltlc$ intlientc ltr itrcrcnsing mutcriulistrt'r' or'
l)o the renlxu'utcH ittrlicitlc a dccline in social conccrn?
Percentage agreoing
1972 3 l)iscuss thc changc indicated in the responses to number 8, bearing in
1 982 mind that one of the objects of the student protest movement at the end of
the 1960s was the grading system, A, B, C, D (very good, good, etc.) on
/ssues agreed on bY students
lGovernmentisnotControllingpollutionadequately BB 79 the ground that grades were elitist.
2 Government is not protecting the consumer 76 69 4 Discuss the answers to number 10, in relation to the setting of lower grade
3 Criminals have too manY rights 50 10 requirements for members of disadvantaged groups: and in the light of the
4 Women's activities are best in the home 37 25 fact that Asians are now showing above-average grades. Is all such
5 Large families should be discouraged 61 37 discrimination wrong?
6 Women should get job equalitY 91 92
7 Marijuana should be legalised 4l 29
B College grades should be abolished 3B 15 EDUCATIONAL STATISTI CS
9 Student publications should be regulated 32 41
10 The disadvantaged should have preferential treatment 41 35 Public School Enrolment College Enrolment by Sex
Objectives considered essential or very important and Expenditures
41
11 12 Blnefl uveenryc ew tehlel- opfof lfiitnicaanlc isatlrluYcture 16 6195 M1 5i0ll io--n--s{fSiiil-.E-{:Ei::::*::l:: :i (to ncf tO/m lmiellnio tns) Millions
30
13 lnfluence social values 31
45
14 Be involved in environmental clean-up 23
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15 Raise a familY
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16 Keep up with Political affairs 38
11 4l
17 Develop a PhilosoPhY of life
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40
1 B Have administrative responsibility 29
19 Participate in community action 23
A2c1t iAvitttieensd eendg aregleigdi oiuns b sye srvtuicdeents during the past year 71 49 1970 75 84 70 75 84 7B B2 B4
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22 Worked in a Political camPaign B Ed ucational Attai nment
23 Drank beer 51 75 (Persons 25 years old and over)
2245 JSomgogkeedd fcivigea triemtteess orer gmuolarrelY per week 19 1225 P1e0r 0c-e--n{t=,:#+l 4o fy heaigrsh osrc hmooorle
75-@l 4 years or more
of college rl:t
Changing asPirations of students, 1967-82 50
Percentages of first year students hoping to continue, after graduation, to
postgraduate studY 25
0
1967 1982 1970 1980 1 984
Men Women Men Women
I Consider the fact that in 1984 almost three-quarters of the population had
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Law School 2.2 0.3 4.5 3.5 I completed at least four years of high school, in relation to the finding that
Ph.D and other hlgh-level courses, I one-fifth of young adults were functionally illiterate (compared with one-
including medical courses 3,5 22 16 tenth in Britain and almost none in Japan).
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