Table Of Content

Urban Energy Transition From Fossil Fuels to Renewable Power Edited by Peter Droege University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia World Council for Renewable Energy ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM • BOST01 • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARTS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYD EY • TOKYO Elsevier Linacre House, jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2008 Copyright© 2008 Elsevier BV. All rights reserved o part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax ( +44) (0) 1865 853333; email: [email protected]. 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Title 333.7'9'091732 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2007941706 ISBN: 978-0-08-045341-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Typeset by Charon Tee Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, lndia Printed and bound in Hungary 08 09 10 11 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries I I www.elsevier.com www.bookaid.org www.sabre.org ELSEVIER ~?c?n~~~~~ Sabre Fcmndut1on Cover design by Peter Droege About the cover image: overall household energy requirement in Greater Sydney and surrounding local government areas, scaled from red, at 270 Gigajoules per person a year, to green, at 150 G]. The map represents energy used in households directly as well as energy embodied in goods and services consumed. It roughly cor relates with income and Lifestyle, and socio-demographic makeup of urban, suburban and rural communities. It corrects the popular assumption that the denser, central city areas are more energy-wise. As long as commercial energy is derived primarly from fossil-fuel combustion big city life also represents the highest source of green house gas emissions in geographic terms. Map generated by Chris Dey for the chapter 'Direct versus embodied euergy the ueed for urban lifestyle trnusitions' by Manfred Lenzen, Richard Wood and Bamey Foran. With gratitude to the Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP) for its assistance in developing this volume. Contents Urban Energy Transition: An Introduction 1 Peter Droege PART I Principles and Drivers 1 Solar City: Reconnecting Energy Generation and Use to the Technical and Social Logic of Solar Energy 17 Hermann Scheer 2 Undoing Atmospheric Harm: Civil Action to Shrink the Carbon Footprint 27 John Byrne, Lado Kurdgelashvili and Kristen Hughes 3 Urbanization, Increasing Wealth and Energy Transitions: Comparing Experiences between the USA, Japan and Rapidly Developing Asia-Pacific Economies 55 Peter f. Marcotullio and Niels B. Schulz 4 Direct versus Embodied Energy-The Need for Urban Lifestyle Transitions 91 Manfred Lenzen, Richard Wood and Barney Foran 5 Energy Development and Sustainable Monetary Systems 121 Shann Turnbull PART II Policy and Practice Dynamics 6 Renewable Energy Policymaking in New York and London: Lessons for other 'World Cities'? 143 Stephen A. Hammer 7 Climate Change and Cities: The Making of a Climate Friendly Future 173 Shobhakar Dhaka/ 8 City Energy Networking in Europe 193 Marco Keiner and Arley Kim 9 Energy Use and C0 Production in the Urban Passenger Transport 2 Systems of 84 International Cities: Findings and Policy Implications 211 Jeffrey R. Kenworthy PART III New Aspects of Technology 10 Storage Systems for Reliable Future Power Supply Networks 239 Dirk Uwe Sauer v Vl Contents 11 The Media Laboratory City Car: A New Approach to Sustainable Urban Mobility 267 William J. Mitchell, Ryan Chin and Andres Sevtsuk 12 Towards the Intelligent Grid: A Review of the Literature 283 john Gardner and Peta Ashworth 13 Innovations Promote Rural and Peri-Urban Electrification in Developing Countries 309 Nancy E. Wimmer PART IV Transforming the Built Environment 14 Towards the Renewable Built Environment 329 Federico Butera 15 Counteracting Urban Heat Islands in Japan 365 Toshiaki Ic hin ose, Futoshi Matsumoto and Kumi Kataoka 16 Ecodesign and the Transition of the Built Environment 381 Ken Yeang 17 "Energy-Contracting" to Achieve Energy Efficiency and Renewables using Comprehensive Refurbishment of Buildings as an Example 387 Jan W. Bleyl-Androschin and Daniel Schinnerl 18 Sustainability on the Urban Scale: Green Urbanism-New Models for Urban Growth and Neighbourhoods 409 Steffen Lehmann PART V International Urban Agendas 19 Barcelona and the Power of Solar Ordinances: Political Will, Capacity Building and People's Participation 433 Josep Puig 20 Reducing Carbon Emissions in London: From Theory to Practice 451 A.R. Day, C. Dunham, P.G. jones, L. Hinojosa, A. Dunsdon and P. Ogumka 21 Urban Energy and Carbon Management in Leicester 475 Peter Webber and Paul Fleming 22 Reducing Carbon Emissions From Oxford City: Plans and Tools 491 Rajat Gupta 23 Integrating Energy in Urban Planning in the Philippines and Vietnam 507 Jessie L. Todoc 24 Sustainable Energy Systems and the Urban Poor: Nigeria, Brazil and the Philippines 533 Joy Clancy, 0/u Maduka and Feri Lumampao Contents Vll 25 Energy Planning in South African cities 563 Mark Borchers, Megan Euston-Brown and Leila Mahomed 26 Household Markets for Ethanol-Prospects for Ethiopia 585 Erin Laurel/ Boyd 27 Freedom from Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Power: The Scope for Local Solutions in the United States 619 Tam Hunt 28 Lagos, Nigeria: Sustainable Energy Technologies for an Emerging African Megacity 631 Richard lngwe, Eugene J. Aniah and Judith Otu Index 647 Urban Energy Transition: An Introduction PETER DROEGE University of Newcastle, Australia Around the world, cities and urban communities plant the seeds to a great transformation, unprecedented in history in its reach and magnitude. The growing footprint of contempor- ary and especially wealthy cities is well documented. Their carbon belching thirst for fossil fuels, their demand for an ever rising stream of global resources, their contribution to land clearing, second to fossil fuel combustion in concentrating greenhouse gases in the atmosphere – all these conditions are not only painfully understood, but have begun to drive important shifts in urban energy and environmental policy making. Urban communities in developing countries confront energy transition challenges that are only superficially different from those of the more industrialized world. Their challenge is to stabilize a growing hunger for secure energy supplies, avoid polluting and wasteful industries and power systems, and – not unlike their more developed sisters – shun development directions that hardwire costly and inefficient mobility patterns for generations to come. Enlightened community leaders and governments are sharply attuned to the need to enhance human health and urban livelihood, and construct bridges of access, equity and empowerment. They seek to nurture more vital and autonomous rural and peri-urban regions, to help reduce and even deflect migrational pressures, but they also hope to craft new development directions that radically depart from the congested coal-and-petroleum path that has been blazed by the economically dominant world, ever since the industrial revolution as referred to by both Lenzen e t al . and Kenworthy in this book. Energy, Cities, Evolution and Innovation Fundamental features in the relation between urban life and energy use are common to Southern and Northern cities. While urban settlements are often more transport-energy efficient – i.e. when looking at per capita petroleum energy expended – than suburban or peri-urban areas, given that nearly all motorized movements are oil based – their overall energy requirements soar high above those of less urbanized communities as referred to by both Lenzen e t al . and Kenworthy in this book. Only in this transport sense can cities rightfully be seen to be more ‘ energy-wise ’ , by affording greater functional densities and hence more compact, concentrated or combined land-use patterns. Here lies a civilization challenge that can only be satisfactorily resolved in a combination of efficiency, cultural innovations and the shift to renewable power. The vitality of cities – their very power as a cultural concentrator, market, and production-consumption engine – is based on the very 1 IInnttrroo--II004455334411..iinndddd 11 11//2222//22000088 55::4433::4455 PPMM 2 Urban Energy Transition densities, resulting synergies and serendipitous encounters they engender. Since their rise in the Bronze Age cities have been central to advanced civilization ’ s conception of cultural and economic accomplishment and supremacy. As a corollary to their exalted status in the architecture of post-agrarian societies they also engender far greater levels of energy consumption when looking at the entire energy requirement spectrum – as described by Manfred Lenzen and his colleagues in their chapter on urban energy embodiment. This elevated energy and general resource intensity of urban economies and lifestyles is hence likely always to have been a basic feature of cities – long resulting in deleterious impacts on surrounding countryside and forest areas. Yet the great difference today is not merely the very proliferation of cities against the background of the fossil-fuel charged population explosion, and not alone the conspicuous and inconspicuous levels in globalized forms of consumption – but also the basic fact that their overwhelming commercial energy input is fossil, with all of its devastating consequences. Positive signals arise from the current global energy conundrum, common to cities in more and less wealthy regions of the world. The present energy transition triggers a tech- nological and logistical innovation wave, affecting areas as disparate as personal and public transport systems; efficiency in computing, industrial processes and building design; innovations in facility construction and use; fiscal, funding and investment models; and in renewable energy generation, storage and management itself. This wave has reinforced many governments in their nascent forms of action, and mobilized business leaders in ven- ture capital finance, equity funds and infrastructure investment across Europe, India, China or the United States – yielding many new companies and a net growth in jobs and flow- on in economic benefits. Yet despite numerous and clear signals of progress and advance into new and sustainable directions of development, the folklore of traditional international energy policy has it that this type of innovation is too expensive or otherwise beyond reach of the developing world. Such statements risk being read as promoting outmoded infra- structures, rather than as genuine concern for improving the livelihood of the poor. Why should the developing world not avail itself of locally sourced, unlimited, non-polluting and income generating means of indigenous renewable energy generation – rather than fall into the trap of antiquated models of electricity supply that are cheap only because their external costs have been discounted, they are heavily subsidised, or both? A fresh generation of urban community leaders embraces new – and newly rediscovered – approaches to city planning and design, with local energy liberation in both developing and developed parts of the world in mind. Supported by experts, leading businesses and international networks they move to bring about a range of related community development, production and consumption level and other economic changes of particular significance to life in cities, city regions and states. To be sure: earlier urban energy technology transitions have been dramatic, too – and none more so than the rapid, epic spread of coal and oil combustion that underpinned urban development as we know it, from the late eighteenth, during the nineteenth and especially throughout the twentieth centuries, yielding our present resource and climate predicaments. Over a short time span this massive, complex energy revolution spawned global electrification, the meteoric rise of motors and machines and the very age of mechanization and automation they represent, of telecommunications and petroleum, coal and gas powered transport on the ground, across the seas and through the air. All these innovations helped boost the primacy and spread of cities, and of urban economies and their inordinately energy-draining lifestyles. The currently commencing energy transition is different. For one, a far greater level of collective consciousness underpins it: today ’ s future choices seem clearer to us than what they were to observers and decision-makers one or two centuries ago. The need to change direction is more widely appreciated today than during earlier times, driven by manifest IInnttrroo--II004455334411..iinndddd 22 11//2222//22000088 55::4433::4455 PPMM Urban Energy Transition: An Introduction 3 constraints as much as new opportunities. Our recent, fossil-fuel charged past was accom- panied by extraordinary futurist visions – the delirious genre of the cities-of-tomorrow, par- ticularly powerful during the first half of the twentieth century. Machine inspired mirages of modern things-to-come projected grand futures and dazzled champions of urban change. Yet in this very pursuit advanced civilizations stumbled into a new global reality few dared to fathom or reflect on. The implications of change did not reach public policy discourse until at least half a century after the great fossil-fuelled growth visions began to enthral, inspir- ing aspirations of ever-rising prosperity around the world. It was only in the 1970s when the global urbanization wave became too massive to ignore, and the unpleasant prospect of a sprawling, crumbling civilization started to seriously spoil the view of future horizons – the very time when the first oil supply shock hit, more than a decade after the inevitable oil decline had first been mooted by an industry insider ( Droege 2006 ). Fears over the looming climate catastrophe had been publicly expressed for a full decade longer: for instance, in the proto-Gore educational film produced by Frank Capra for Bell Labs, T he Unchained Goddess ( Capra and Hurtz 1958 ). Yet, even in these very moments of lucidity the link between the worldwide energy revolution driving progress throughout the twentieth century, the trig- gering of an unprecedented population explosion, the unfolding global urban reality and the stability of the planet ’ s ecosystem had not been appreciated. Since that time, future urban development scenarios have become much more tangible, and unnervingly so. New Perspectives: Lifting the Gaze from the Ground Below This transition also differs in its philosophical and scientific outlooks, and in its very para- digms of progress. The all-consuming preoccupation with fossil and nuclear energy is rooted in the spirit of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the popular obsession with the rising science of geology, the great new frontier of that era, caricatured so succinctly by Bill Bryson in his S hort History of Nearly Everything ( Bryson 2003 ). The intensive study of underground rock formations triggered a massive, mole-like pursuit of mineral mining. The nineteenth century still rules: mining very much colours mainstream discourse on energy today: oil wells, uranium deposits, coal seams describe sources of ‘ our energy ’ . And, within this family of historical and philosophical affinities, methane hydrate, oil shale and tar sands are frequently presented as ‘ new ’ energy resources – a sad irony since they only represent the fading days of the golden age of energy mining, and the inexor-able end of the fossil incineration age. In anticipation of the inevitable, calls for clamping down on the global resource conflagration have grown more agitated. Advanced renewable energy systems are finally beginning to be pursued on a global scale. Their deployment is vastly different from the mining and processing of combustible carbonic carcasses. In almost all its guises renewable power is stellar in nature: derived from our own star, the Sun. At the closest distance of 146 million kilometres it projects enough power to heat the entire surface and atmosphere of our planet by 300 degrees Celsius (C), that is, from 0 degree kelvin (K) to some 18 degrees C – and rising. It gives rise to plant and animal life. It drives the worldwide water cycle and causes atmospheric air masses to shift at a global scale. It has been calculated that wind power alone – gauged at a height of some 80 metres and counting only those 13% of calcula- tion points yielding good wind speeds – is capable of generating some five to eight times the electricity now generated by all commercial sources combined ( Archer and Jacobson 2005 ). Structural Differences Between Non-Renewable and Renewable Power Systems Direct renewable energy sources – such as sunshine, wind, water and wave flow, or the cycles of ebb and tide – are freely available and hence not tradable commodities until IInnttrroo--II004455334411..iinndddd 33 11//2222//22000088 55::4433::4455 PPMM