Untitled - VU-dare - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

362 Pages·2008·28.04 MB·English

HYDROCHEMISTRY AND HYDROLOGY
OF THE COASTAL DUNE AREA OF
THE WESTERN NETHERLANDS
Cover: decomposing leafon decalcified dune sand at the bottom ofa flow-through lake. The released organics
reduce sulphate and ferric hydroxides, and both reaction products combine into a blackiron m()nosul
phide precipitate downgradient.
Photo: F. Luers
CIP-DATA KONINKLUKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG
Stuyfzand, Pieter Jan
Hydrochemistry and hydrology ofthe coastal dune area ofthe Western Netherlands / Pieter Jan Stuyfzand.
Nieuwegein :KIWA, Afd. Onderzoek & Advies. - Ill.
Also publ. as thesis Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1993. -
With index, ref- With summary in Dutch.
ISBN 90-74741-01-0
NUm 816
Subject headings: hydrochemistry / hydrology; Western Netherlands.
Copyright © 1993 KIWA N.V., Research & Consultancy Division, Groningenhaven 7, P.O. Box
1072, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, ortransmitted in any form
or by any means, withoutprior written permission ofKIWA N.V.
VRlJE UNIVERSITEIT
HYDROCHEMISTRY AND HYDROLOGY
OF THE COASTAL DUNE AREA OF
THE WESTERN NETHERLANDS
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFf
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan
de Vrije Universiteit van Amsterdam,
op gezag van de rector magnificus
dr. C. Datema,
hoogleraar aan de faculteit der letteren,
in het openbaar te verdedigen
ten overstaan van de promotiecommissie
van de faculteit der aardwetenschappen
op dinsdag 25 mei 1993 te 15.30 uur
in het hoofdgebouw van de universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105
door
PIETER JAN STUYFZAND
geboren te Haarlem
Promotor prof.dr. G.B. Engelen
Copromotor dr. C.AJ. Appelo
Referenten prof.dr. G. Matthess
dr. W.M. Edmunds
To my parents Do and Jan
To Loredana and Eugenie

7
CONTENTS
PREFACE 13
SUMMARY 15
SAMENVATTING 21
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General significance ofhydrochemistry 27
1.2 Coastal plains and dunes in general . 28
1.3 The coastal dune area ofthe Western Netherlands as a test site. 29
1.4 Previous hydrochemical studies in the dunes . - 31
1.5 Scope and outline ofthis study ........_ 34
1.6 Dissolved constituents under consideration 36
2. THE HYDROCHEMICAL FACIES ANALYSIS
Abstract 39
2.1 General........ ..... 39
2.2 Principles and definitions . 41
2.3 Acquisition and screening ofhydrochemical data. 42
2.3.1 Needed data in general . 43
2.3.2 Sampling groundwater: problems and recommendations 43
2.3.3 Checking the accuracy of chemical analyses. 48
2.3.4 Estimating missing values . 50
2.4 Defining the facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.1 Classification ofwater types . 51
2.4.2 The redox index - 55
2.4.3 A water quality index .. 58
2.4.4 A relevant mineral saturation index 60
2.4.5 Water temperature . 61
2.5 Identifying the origin .- 61
2.6 Mapping . 62
2.6.1 Suggestions for associations and differentiations 63
2.6.2 Coding and nomenclature ..... -. --. -. - 63
2.7 Interpretation . . . . . . 63
2.8 Concluding remarks . 65
3. HYDROLOGY OF THE COASTAL AREA
Abstract 67
3.1 General . 67
3.2 Physiography . 68
3.2.1 Situation and climate . 68
3.2.2 Geology . 68
3.2.3 Geomorphology . 73
3.2.4 Parent materials and soils . 74
3.2.5 Dune vegetation .. 75
3.3 Hydrogeological structure . 76
3.4 Natural groundwater recharge in dunes. 78
8 CONTENTS
3.4.1 Gross precipitation 78
3.4.2 Natural groundwater recharge as a function of vegetation. 78
3.4.3 Natural groundwater recharge in 1850 and 1980 .. - -- - 81
3.4.4 Transit time in the vadose zone. . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 Analytical approximations for a fresh dune water lens 83
3.5.1 The Ghyben-Herzberg principle ..... 83
3.5.2 General assumptions and their validity. 84
3.5.3 Size and shape ... 84
3.5.4 Time offormation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.5.5 Dispersion across the fresh-salt water interface , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.6 Palaeohydrology and early-historical hydrology: the Quarternary period till 1850 AD 91
3.6.1 The Pleistocene _ 91
3.6.2 The Holocene till 1000 AD 91
3.6.3 The Holocene from 1000 till 1550 AD 93
3.6.4 The Holocene from 1550 till 1850 AD .. 95
3.7 Historical hydrology: the period after 1850 AD 96
3.7.1 The period from 1850 - 1903 96
3.7.2 The period from 1903 - 1955 98
3.7.3 The period from 1955 - 1976 102
3.7.4 The period from 1976 - 1990 104
3.7.5 The period after 1990 104
3.8 Major changes during the past 5000 years: synthesis and areal extent 105
3.9 Actual groundwater flow systems .. -- 108
3.9.1 Definitions............ 108
3.9.2 The coastal area anno 1981 109
3.9.3 The Maassluis system 109
3.9.4 The North Sea system _ 109
3.9.5 Dune systems ., 111
3.9.6 Polder systems 112
\ 3.9.7 Artificial recharge systems . 113
3.10 Special flow cases 113
3.10.1 Gravity-driven collapse and volumetric compensation 113
3.10.2 Rain water lenses ..... 113
3.10.3 Flow-through dune lakes 117
3.11 Concluding remarks . 120
4. HYDROCHEMICAL FACIES ANALYSIS OF THE COASTAL AREA
Abstract _. - ----- 121
4.1 General........................... 121
4.2 Hydrochemical data collection and screening . 122
4.2.1 Inventory of all available data. . . 122
4.2.2 Screening and ranking . 122
4.2.3 Collection and analysis of 2500 samples 123
4.3 Construction and presentation of regional maps . 125
4.3.1 Starting-points .. ----- 125
4.3.2 Origin detection . 125
4.3.3 Maps, sections and typical analyses . 126
4.4 Discussion ofthe discerned hydrosomes and their facies . 127
4.4.1 The connate, marine Maassluis hydrosome (M) ... 127
4.4.2 The relict, Holocene transgression hydrosome (L) 131
4.4.3 The actual North Sea hydrosome (S) . 136
4.4.4 Coastal dune hydrosomes (D) . 138
4.4.5 Polder hydrosomes (P) . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.6 Artificial recharge hydrosomes (A) . 142
4.4.7 Important mixed hydrosomes 150
4.5 Interpretation of the regional patterns . 151
4.5.1 Facies chains . 151
4.5.2 Flow patterns and life cycle . 151
contents 9
4.5.3 Geochemical structure ofthe subsoil . 154
4.5.4 Water table fluctuations, land-use and environmental pollution 154
4.6 Subregional application to flow-through dune lakes . .. .. -.. -. 159
4.7 Local application to a moist dune slack 163
4.8 Concluding remarks . 166
5. COMPOSITION OF BULK PRECIPITATION
Abstract 167
5.1 General . 167
5.2 Measurement . 167
5.2.1 Bulk precipitation as a fraction of total atmospheric deposition. 167
5.2.2 Problems . 168
5.2.3 Monitoring stations . 169
5.3 Mean composition . 169
5.3.1 General considerations . 169
5.3.2 Sea spray contribution ..... 172
5.3.3 Continental mineral aerosols . 173
5.3.4 Biogenic inputs . 173
5.3.5 Air pollution. -- 174
5.4 Spatial variations . 176
5.4.1 Regional patterns . 176
5.4.2 Gradients perpendicular to the shore line south of Zandvoort aan Zee . 176
5.5 Variations with time .. --- - ---. --- 179
5.5.1 Trends . 179
5.5.2 Variations in annual means. 182
5.5.3 Seasonal fluctuations . - 182
5.5.4 Episodes - 182
5.5.5 During a shower . 186
5.6 Concluding remarks . 186
6 FROM RAIN WATER TO THE UPPER DUNE WATERS
Abstract 187
6.1 Genera1............................ 188
6.2 Description ofsites and groundwater sampling 188
6.3 Hydrological boundary conditions . 193
6.3.1 Gross precipitation and groundwater recharge. 193
6.3.2 Position of the water table . 194
6.3.3 Vegetation water lenses and the transit times within 194
6.3.4 Artificial dispersion by sampling -- 197
6.4 Geochemistry of dune sand and dune peat 199
6.4.1 Dune sand as parent material 199
6.4.2 Dune sand in soil zone . 202
6.4.3 Dune peat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.5 Changes "en route" from rain water to the upper dune waters 205
6.5.1 Review of processes - 205
6.5.2 The changes, in a bird's-eye view 206
6.5.3 Throughfall ... 207
6.5.4 Litter leachate. 210
6.5.5 Soil moisture . 211
6.6 Spatial variations in the composition ofupper dune water . 213
6.6.1 Presentation of results . 213
6.6.2 Effects of spatial variations in bulk precipitation chemistry 214
6.6.3 Effects of different vegetation covers . 219
6.6.4 Effects ofdifferences in decalcification . 221
6.6.5 Effects ofdifferent kinds of dune peat interaction . 227
6.6.6 Effects ofdifferences and changes in thickness of the unsaturated zone. 230
6.7 Fluctuations in the composition of upper dune water 233