Untangling a Gordian knot that must not be cut: Social-ecological systems research for management of southern Benguela fisheries

11 Pages·2018·1.243 MB·English

by  A. Jarre, L.J. Shannon, R. Cooper, G.L. Duggan, L.C. Gammage, E.M. Lockerbie, E.S. McGregor, S.M. Ragaller, N. Visser, C. Ward, K.E. Watermeyer, F.G. Weller, R.E. Ommer

Journal of Marine Systems 188 (2018) 149–159
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Journal of Marine Systems
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmarsys
Untangling a Gordian knot that must not be cut: Social-ecological systems
fi T
research for management of southern Benguela sheries
A.Jarrea,b,c,⁎,L.J.Shannona,b,R.Coopera,b,G.L.Duggana,b,L.C.Gammagea,b,E.M.Lockerbiea,b,c,
E.S.McGregora,b,c,S.M.Ragallera,b,N.Vissera,b,C.Warda,b,K.E.Watermeyera,b,c,F.G.Wellera,b,c,
R.E. Ommerd,e
aMarineResearch(MA-RE)Institute,UniversityofCapeTown,PrivateBagX3,Rondebosch7701,SouthAfrica
bDepartmentofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofCapeTown,PrivateBagX3,Rondebosch7701,SouthAfrica
cCentreforStatisticsinEnvironment,EcologyandConservation(SEEC),UniversityofCapeTown,PrivateBagX3,Rondebosch7701,SouthAfrica
dDepartmentofHistory,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BCV8W3R4,Canada
eDepartmentofGeography,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BCV8W3R4,Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords1: Thehistoricalapproachofsector-specific,largelytop-downmanagementinfavorofhighlycapitalizedindustry
BenguelaCurrentLargeMarineUpwelling* sectors has seemingly left southern Benguela fisheries management in a Gordian knot. The modern systems
Ecosystem approachtomanagementofhumanactivitiesintheoceansforbidscuttingthroughtheknot,makingitnecessary
Ecosystemmanagement* todevelop methodologyforincluding awiderangeofstakeholders andtradingoffmultiple,conflictingob-
Ecosystemresilience*
jectivesunderhighuncertainty.Recentresearchinaninterdisciplinarygroupincludingresearchersandstudents
Modelling*withstakeholders
from the humanities, social and natural sciences has focused on soft predictability and structured decision
Structureddecisionmaking
makinginsocial-ecologicalmarinesystemsunderglobalchange.Usingthreemanagementcasestudiesfromthe
Transdisciplinaryresearch
southern Benguela, i.e. purse-seine fisheries, conservation of the Endangered African penguin and the com-
Regionalindexterms: mercialhandlinefisherysysteminthesouthernCape,wereviewhowmodellingsystemdynamicswithstake-
Africa
holders, semi-quantitative methodology for the integration of a wide variety of indicators, social learning,
SouthAfrica
SouthernBenguela communicationaroundsharedissuesanddedicatedtrustbuildinghavesupportedsofteningofboundariesbe-
AgulhasBank tweenstereotyped stakeholders, andarecontributingtoashared knowledgebaseaswell astoanextended
toolkitformanagement.Wehighlightpromisingloopsoftheknotwithaviewofgeneratingdiscussiononhow
thesecanbetackledstrategically.
1. Introduction communitiesarepoor(e.g.,Sowmanetal.,2014)andmarginalizedin
the decision-making and management processes. Tensions in human
Thehistoricapproachofsector-specific,largelytop-downmanage- social subsystems are high, ranging from grievances of small quota
ment(Ommeretal.,2012)infavorofhighlycapitalizedindustrysec- holdersinthelarge,offshorefisheries(e.g.,Haraetal.,2014),through
torshasseeminglyleftfisheriesmanagementinthesouthernBenguela, classactioncourtcasesoffishingcommunities(e.g.,Isaacs,2011)and
situatedaroundSouthAfrica'swestandsouthcoasts,caughtinaGor- irregularities in fishing right allocations (“FRAP 2013”, see, e.g.,
dianknot.Thecountry'seconomicallymostimportantfishery,onCape Moolla, 2014) to highly organized crime syndicates targeting high
hakes (Merluccius capensis and M. paradoxus) is struggling with in- value resources such as abalone (Haliotis midae) (e.g., Norton, 2014;
creasinglylessoptimisticstockoutlooks(RademeyerandButterworth, Raemaekersetal.,2011;Steinberg,2005).Althoughitwouldhavebeen
2016),andthecountry'ssecondmostimportantfishery,thepurse-seine reasonable to assume that industrialized fisheries management had
fisherytargettingsardine(Sardinopssagax),hasbeencontendingwitha learnt from the havoc wreaked by the collapse of the Newfoundland-
worryinglylowresourcebasefornineoutofthepasttenyears(deMoor Labrador cod fishery some 25years ago, there continues to be an
and Butterworth, 2016). Commercially important coastal resources, overwhelming parallel in South Africa to the structural problems in
including the west coast rock lobster (Jasus lalandii) and linefish are Canadian fisheries in the 1980s, caused by bureaucratic, centralist
grossly overfished (e.g., Blamey et al., 2015). Coastal fishing managementthathasfailedtoinstituterelationshipsthatpromoterural
⁎Correspondingauthor.
E-mailaddresses:[email protected],[email protected](A.Jarre).
1KeywordsfromASFAwereindicatedwith*
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2018.01.004
Received20January2017;Receivedinrevisedform14November2017;Accepted15January2018
Available online 11 February 2018
0924-7963/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V.
A.Jarreetal. Journal of Marine Systems 188 (2018) 149–159
developmentwithadiversifiedlivelihoodbase(Ommer,1985). contexts,andsuggeststrategicnextstepstostrengthenthesupportfor
South Africa has committed to implementing an Ecosystem anecosystemsapproachtofisheriesmanagementbasedonsocial-eco-
ApproachtoFisheries(EAF)(FAO,2003;GarciaandCochrane,2005), logicalsystemsresearch.
whichstrivestobalanceecological,economic,social,andgovernance-
relatedobjectivesinviewofuncertaintyandmultipledriversexternal 2. Methodologyandresultsbycasestudy
tothefisheriessystem,suchasglobal(includingclimate)change.Im-
plementation of this approach is envisaged along three dimensions, 2.1. Casestudy1:SouthAfricanpurse-seinefisheries
ecological, human and “ability to achieve” which, taken together,
comprisethemainelementsofgovernanceandalsoconsiderationofthe South Africa's purse seine fishery mainly targets sardine and an-
influence of drivers beyond the control of fisheries management in- chovy(Engraulisencrasicolus),withby-catchofjuvenilehorsemackerel
stitutions such as long-term climate variability and change, or pollu- (Trachuruscapensis)andredeyeroundherring(Etrumeuswhiteheadi),as
tion.Theimplicationsofthismodernsystemsapproachtomanagement well as mesopelagic lanternfish (Lampanyctodes hectoris) and lightfish
of human activities in theocean makes itnecessary to develop meth- (Maurolicus walvisiensis). Sardine is mostly canned for human con-
odology for including a wide range of stakeholders and trading off sumption,whereSouthAfricandemandexceedsthecurrentsupply,and
multiple, conflicting objectives under high uncertainty. The approach alsofrozenasbait.Anchovyarereducedtofishmealandoilwhichis
seeks to implement the principles of “ecosystem justice” discussed in tradedglobally.Thefisheryhasundergonesubstantialchangesoverthe
Cowardetal.(2000),implyingtheneedtodevelopethicallyacceptable past70years(e.g.,Hutchingsetal.,2015;Jarreetal.,2013)mostre-
relationships among all competing and complementary interests of a centlyinthewakeofaregimeshiftthatcausedashiftindistribution
social-ecological system. In short, it rejects cutting through the pro- from the west coast subsystem to the Agulhas Bank subsystem in the
verbialknotbypursuingsolutionsthatmayseemshort-termeffective early 2000s (Coetzee et al., 2008; Fairweather et al., 2006; Howard
butcausehighcollateraldamage. etal.,2007).
Inpractice,however,SouthAfricahasembarkedonaneoclassical Thefisheryiscurrentlymanagedbasedonlong-termrights(ineffect
economy,whichcontinuestofavoreconomicoverecologicalandsocial an Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) system), an Operational
values. An improvement of well-being of the natural and the human- ManagementProcedure(OMP)thatsetsannualtotalallowablecatches
socialsubsystemsinthesouthernBenguelarequires(followingonfrom, (TACs)forsardineandanchovy,aswellasprecautionaryuppercatch
e.g., Jentoft, 2000) re-building overexploited coastal and offshore limitsfortheprincipalbycatch.Thismanagementsystemcontinuesto
marine living resource bases while building sustainable fishing com- favor industrial capitalism (e.g., Hara et al., 2014). The active in-
munitiesthatarecurrentlyunbalancedordysfunctionalthrough such volvement of large industry in both scientific (stock assessment) and
structuralproblemsaspovertyandloweducationlevels,aggravatedin managementworkinggroupsoftheFisheriesBranchoftheDepartment
SouthAfricabytheatrocitiesofitsApartheidpast(e.g.,Ratneretal., ofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries(DAFF)exertsstronginfluenceon
2013; Russell, 2009). Fisheries problems have been recognized as scholarly discourse and management decisions. Principal sources of
‘wicked’(RittelandWebber,1973andmanyrecentotherstudies)-i.e., conflictincludetheneedsofsmallquotaholdersandnew(post-1996)
socomplexthatthereisdisagreementonhowtosolvetheirproblems entrantsintothefisheryversusthoseofestablished,largeindustry,and
andsotheyremainpersistentorrecurring,inpartbecausethereareno thoseofbalancingecosystemservicesversusmaximizationoffisheries
technical ‘solutions’ except those that often have distributional and revenue. The power of the neoclassical economics paradigm is also
procedural equity implications forstakeholder groups. Rebuilding da- manifested in the disbanding by DAFF in 2014 of the EAF Working
magedfisherieshasbeendescribedas“particularlywicked”(Khanand Groupinwhichmuchoftheresearchunderpinningtheimplementation
Neis,2010).Giventhis,oursolutionistouseavailablequalitativeand ofanEAFhadbeenshapedandshared,includingthenovelframe-based
quantitative methodology, here called “tools”, to unpick the more (Smith and Jarre, 2011; Watermeyer, 2015) and agent-based systems
promisingloopsoftheGordianknot,whilealsocontributingnewtools modellingapproaches(Cooper,2015).
totheexistingtoolkit. AnEcologicalRiskAssessment(ERA),carriedoutin2005(Neletal.,
TheimplementationofanEAFinthesouthernBenguelaregion— 2007), pointed to extreme risks in all three EAF dimensions, and de-
which represents two of the four subsystems of the Benguela Current rived a set of management objectives from these that is much wider
LargeMarineEcosystem(Blameyetal.,2015;Hutchingsetal.,2009)— than those considered in mainstream management. In collaboration
is based on a relatively good understanding of ecological dynamics with the departmental EAF Working Group, this initial set of wider
(e.g.,Moloneyetal.,2004;Shannonetal.,2004)andthemorerecent management objectives was revised and an approach was pursued
increased focus on understanding the human social dimensions and linking indicators to these management objectives and developing a
social-ecological interrelationships of fisheries in a management con- simple model for their combined evaluation (Jarre et al., 2006;
text(Haraetal.,2014;Isaacs,2013;Jarreetal.,2013;Norton,2014; Patersonetal.,2007),tobeusedasadditionaltoolinthemanagement
Sowman et al., 2013). Marine Spatial Planning for biodiversity con- advisory process. For objectives in the human dimension, a first pro-
servation,aswellasintegratedcoastalzonemanagement,arealsode- totype model is currently available, pertaining to the well-being of
veloping (Lombard et al., 2004; Sink and Attwood, 2008; Sink et al., communitiesinwhichprocessingfactoriesarelocated,thewell-being
2011). Our interdisciplinary group, which includes researchers and of the established industry, and the well-being of new entrants
studentsfromanthropology,sociology,history,geography,economics, (Patersonetal.,2010).Fortheecologicaldimensionasecond-prototype
mathematics, oceanography and biology, has the requisite inter- model isavailable (Astor, 2014;McGregor, 2015), basedon thePres-
disciplinaryexpertisetotackletheproblem.Ourresearchhasfocused sure-State-ResponseFramework(OECD,1999,2003)which,inaddition
on soft predictability and structured decision making in the Benguela to evaluating indicators used inthe currentOMP, explicitly evaluates
underglobalchange,withtheaimofadvancingtheimplementationof thepressureexertedbyspatiallydisproportionatefishingonsardine,as
anEAF.Inotherwords,wehavesoughttogenerateawiderknowledge- wellasthestateofselectedseabirdpopulationsasdependentpredators
baseformanagementwhichissharedbyalargergroupofstakeholders, (Fig.1).Combinedevaluationoftheindicatorsthroughahierarchyof
in support of inclusive, transparent and defensible management deci- weightedmeansfortheperiod1987–2009revealsthatpressuresexerted
sion-making. bythesardinefisherywereacceptableinthefirsthalfofthe1990s,but
Usingthreecasestudies—theSouthAfricanpurse-seinefisheries, worsened from “Good” to “Bad” in the decade from 1998 to 2008
conservation of the Endangered African penguin and the commercial (Fig.2,toppanel).Thestateofthe(sardine-dependent)ecosystemim-
handline fishery system in the southern Cape — we here review pro- provedfrom“Acceptable”inthesecondhalfofthe1990sto“Good”in
gress and the lessons learnt for the South African but also global 2000, but then deteriorated from 2000 through 2008 (Fig. 2, middle
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Fig.1.Objectivehierarchyfortheecologicaldimensionofthesardine-directedsmallpelagicsfisheryinthesouthernBenguela.Theobjectivesinwhiteareexplicitlyevaluatedinthe
knowledge-basedtool.
AdaptedfromMcGregor(2015).
panel), and the overall Ecological well-being, resulting from the com- boundaryobject(sensuStarandGriesemer,1989)–thatis,onethatis
binedevaluationofpressureandstateindicators,revealedanacceptable understoodasamaterialobjecttofocusinteractionandcommunication
situationonlyduring1991–2003(Fig.2,bottompanel),deteriorating around a specific topic or issue. It has been used to promote social
to“Bad”during2007and2008.Incontrast,thecombinedevaluation learning among those stakeholders on ways forward towards im-
for theanchovy-directed fishery indicates atleast “Acceptable” Ecolo- plementation of an EAF in the sardine-directed fishery. This has con-
gicalwell-beingsince1997(Astor,2014). firmed the model's potential for not only leading to improved assess-
Although the model is not currently used in DAFF's assessment or mentandmanagementthoughimprovedtechnicalknowledge,butalso
management working groups, its component pertaining to the ecolo- to the reduction of misunderstandings and towards better trust. A
gicaldimension wasusedsuccessfully–infocusgroupmeetingswith subsequent multiple stakeholder workshop, which included industry
stakeholders ranging from junior DAFF staff, to fisheries and con- and thus faced a situation with increased conflict, was facilitated ex-
servationmanagers–tocommunicatethecomplexityoftheevaluation plicitlytopromotesociallearning,anddemonstratedthevalueofthese
of well-being. This process involved stakeholders in improving the tools-thesmall,syntheticmodelaswellastheexplicitfacilitationof
presentation of the model result and, identifying issues that needed workshops for social learning around the complexity of management
addressing for the next iteration in the model-development process. issues-forBenguelafisheries(McGregoretal.,2016).
McGregor(2015)haspointedoutthatthesimplemodelhadservedasa
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A.Jarreetal. Journal of Marine Systems 188 (2018) 149–159
Fig.2.Evaluation,usingtheknowledge-basedtoolbyMcGregor(2015),oftheindicatorseriesrelatedtotheobjectivehierarchiesinFig.1.Red-“Bad”,Orange-“Poor”,Yellow-
“Acceptable”,Green-“Good”.AdaptedfromMcGregor(2015).
2.2. Casestudy2:conservationmanagementoftheEndangeredAfrican Welleretal.,2016a),theresultswereambiguousfortheotherislands,
penguin attributedpartlytoinsufficientsizeoftheclosedarea(Pichegruetal.,
2012), and partly to fragmented periods of closure and hence, in-
TheAfricanpenguin(Spheniscusdemersus),endemictotheBenguela sufficientdurationoftheexperiment(Sherleyetal.,2018).However,
region anda predator dependent on sardine and anchovy, islisted as two of these islands are now proposed to be included in a Marine
Endangered by IUCN along with the Cape cormorant (Phalacrocorax ProtectedAreawhich,ifimplemented,willlikelyalleviatetheproblem
capensis, Endangered), and Cape gannet (Morus capensis, Vulnerable), of closing off areas too small to be effective. The overall exploitation
both with similar food requirements (e.g., Crawford et al., 2014). A rate of sardine was not reduced in this period, and the low sardine
conservationmanagementplanfortheAfricanpenguinwasagreedon biomasslimitedtheavailabilityofrequiredfoodinthewiderecosystem
inordertoreversepopulationdecline(DEA,2013).Itsimplementation during the non-breeding phase. Two modelling approaches were pur-
includes resolving the problem of attributing the decline to food suedinparallel.Onewasconductedinthestockassessmentparadigm
shortages stemming from the purse-seine fisheries, both those around (Robinson et al., 2015) while the other pursued a mediated system
penguin breeding colonies and in the wider ecosystem where these dynamics modelling approach (Van den Belt, 2004), with ecologists
birds forage when not breeding. Three scientific approaches were in- from academia and government, conservation practitioners and man-
vokedtoaddressthisproblem:experimentalclosuresandrelateddata agers(Welleretal.,2014,2016a)participatinginaworkinggrouprun
collection and statistical analyses, stock assessment modelling and independently from government. The interpretation of the results of
systemsmodelling. bothapproachesagreedthatreducedfishingwouldhavesomepositive
Arosterofexperimentalclosuresofareasaroundfourislandswith effect on the recovery of penguins, but the population trend would
penguincolonieswasimplementedstartingin2009(e.g.,Dunnetal., likely not be reversed by reduction of fishing alone. Sardine spawner
2014). Whereas a positive effect of closures on breeding success has biomassinthepenguins'non-breedingfeedinggroundappearstobea
beendemonstratedforoneofthese,RobbenIsland(Sherleyetal.,2015; substantially stronger driver of adult penguin survival, a relationship
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In light of the risk to workers' jobs in processing factories in the
wakeofcatchreductions,onestudypointedtoitbeingmostlyseasonal
workers who are affected by TAC reductions, and mentioned the (al-
readyrecognized)possibilityofimportingfrozenfishforprocessing,or
finding alternative products to maintain production levels (Hutchings
et al., 2015). The social and economic structure and dynamics of the
seabird tourism industry remains poorly researched and understood.
WhereasrevenuesfromvisitorstothepenguincolonyclosesttoCape
Town(BouldersBeach)havebeensubstantial(Lewisetal.,2012),the
social and economic potential of ecotourism to a nearby colony in
Betty'sBay,remainsuntapped(RagallerandJarre,2015,2016).
The interpretation of these results demonstrates a classic conflict
betweenconservationandexploitation,inasituationwheredivergent
legislation and weak government departments are unable to foster
collaboration on the implementation of the Penguin Biodiversity
Management Plan. Influential participants in the official advice-gen-
eratingprocessinDAFFhavevoicedtheopinionthatvulnerablejobsin
thefishprocessingindustryarenotlikelytobetradedoffagainstsea-
birdconservation,implyingthatprocessesthatwouldformthebasisfor
suchtrade-offswouldthereforenotneedtobeinitiated(pers.comm.to
Fig.3.Estimatesofsurvivalofadultpenguin(Spheniscusdemersus)onRobbenIsland,
SouthAfrica,relativetospawnerbiomassofsardine(Sardinopssagax,age1+)estimated AJ,November2015).Anewmanagementinstitution,theResponsible
fromresearchsurveydatabetweenCapePointandCapeAgulhasinNovembereachyear Fisheries Alliance (RFA, www.rfalliance.org), which represents an as-
from1983to2013.Bluecurve:log-linearmodel;redcurve:GAMmodel;blackcurve:step sociation of five large fishing companies and two major conservation
function.Dottedlinesfromlefttoright:75%ofmedianbiomass,medianbiomass,mean NGOs,mightwellbecomekeyinthissituation,eventhoughprogressto
biomass. dateremainsfragile.
AdoptedfromWelleretal.(2016,TRACEdocument).
2.3. Casestudy3:transdisciplinaryresearchintothehandlinefisheriesin
thatsuggeststheadoptionofseveralthresholdsforinitiatingmanage-
thesouthernCape
ment actions (Fig. 3). The ongoing debate between the two scientific
modelling communities (e.g., Butterworth et al., 2015; Cherry, 2014;
MotivatedbytheecosystemregimeshifttowardstheAgulhasBank
Welleretal.,2016b)highlightstheneedtocarryoutcarefulassumption
subsystemofthesouthernBenguelaintheearly2000s,andinspiredby
analyses, to better understand migration between colonies, and the
theoutcomesoftheCanadianCoastsunderStressProject(Ommerand
possible effects of other marine predation as well as other causes of
Team,2007),weselectedthesouthernCaperegionbetweenWitsands
adult mortalityatsea.Despitetheriskoftheremaining scientificun-
and Mossel Bay (Fig. 4) as a focus for developing a transdisciplinary
certaintybeingusedasapretextformanagementinaction,thegeneral
approach to research and management. The southern Cape is a rural
agreementbetweentheapproaches,supportedbyconcertedactionby region,some300–400kmeastofMetropolitanCapeTownwithMossel
those participants who support the implementation of the Penguin
Bayastheonly medium-sizedharbortown(ca.90,000inhabitants in
BiodiversityManagementPlan,hasresultedinkeepingtheexperiment 2011) with processing facilities for linefish, a relatively new cannery
running for another three years and, in doing so, has achieved some and a gas-to-liquids refinery. Farming, fishing and tourism are the
protectionforbreedingpenguins.
traditionaleconomicpillarsofthisregion.StillBay,atthemouthofthe
Fig.4.MapoftheresearchareainthesouthernCapethatrepresentsthefocusofthe“SouthCoastInterdisciplinaryFisheries(SCIFR)”projectdescribedincasestudy3.
AdoptedfromGammageetal.(2017a).
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agreement (http://www.rfalliance.org.za/projects/co-management-
the-way-forward-for-inshore-trawl-bycatch).
Theconflictsbetweenhandlineandtrawlfisheriesdatebacktothe
beginningsoftheState-favoredtrawlfishery(Visser,2015).Thiswasin
line with globally dominant governance paradigms at the time, and
contributed to a sense of marginalization by handline fishers ex-
acerbatedbytheirgeographicalremotenessfromtheurbanmarketsfor
theirproducts. Thegenerallevelofconflictinthearea, however,has
been lower and less violent than in fishing communities along South
Africa's west coast (Norton, 2014). Nevertheless, entrenched mistrust
towardsresearchersfromdistantmetropolesbecauseofthehistoryof
marginalization and, within and among communities, the persisting
legacy of Apartheid, together make facilitated collaboration among
different stakeholder groups extremely difficult (Duggan, in prep;
Gammage,inprep).
Fig. 5.Framework of the “South Coast Interdisciplinary Fisheries Research (SCIFR)” The results of 2010–11 ethnographic research with skippers from
project. StillBayandthenearbyMelkhoutfounteinsuggestthattheseskippers
actively work towards achieving a balance between profit and sus-
GoukouRiver,wasoriginallyanoutspanarea,alsousedbyfarmersof tainabilityofkobastheirprincipaltargetspecies,aswellas,intimesof
theareaforcampingduringthesummer,buthassincedevelopedintoa adequateresourceabundance,itsreefhabitats,(Dugganetal.,2014).
prosperousholidayandretirementtown.Italsousedtobeacenterof Geographicalresearchhasfoundthatfishersintheareaaresubjectto
theregion'ssmall-scalehandlinefishery,withasmallharborincluding multiple stressors that are experienced similarly across towns. How-
twoslipwaysandtwosmallprocessingfacilitiesforlinefish,ofwhich ever,adaptivestrategiesareplace-basedandincludeadaptationintwo
only one remains. A Marine Protected Area was declared in 2008 to towns, coping in two others, and reacting in one (Gammage, 2015;
protecttheGoukouRiverestuaryandthesandybaysbotheastandwest Gammageetal.,2017a,2017b).Thesegoalongwithintensificationof
ofStillBay.Thereareseveralsmallertownsorsettlementsintheregion effort and diversification within the fishery in the adapting commu-
inwhichsmall-scalefishingcontributestolivelihoodsandwaysoflife; nities, reduction of effort with temporary diversification outside the
theseareincludedinourresearchproject. fishery in the coping communities, and reduction of effort with high
Theprincipalresearchquestionsour“SouthCoastInterdisciplinary relianceoninformalincomeopportunitiesinadditiontosocialgrantsin
Research Project (SCIFR)” asks are, (i) How are natural and social the reacting community (Gammage, 2015; Gammage et al., 2017a,
changesinthesouthernCapeshapingandinteractingwithmarineso- 2017b).Theuseofintegratedteachingmodulesonoceanchangeina
cial-ecologicalsystems?,(ii)Morespecifically,howareselectednatural small, underprivileged school in the reacting community, aimed at
resources users inthis area responding to global change and howare sowingtheseedsofresiliencethinkinginhighschoollearnersinGrade
theyshapingchangeintheirregion?and(iii)Howcantheknowledge 7–9, also explores possible synergies between formal education and
ofthecurrentstateofthesocial-ecologicalsystembeusedtobuildmore sociallearning(Duggan,inprep).
resilientsystems?Theprojectdrawsonabroadrangeofdisciplinesbut Whereaslong-term,environmentalvariabilityhasbeendocumented
usescommonthemesandmethodstoexploreresilienceinthesouthern at the scale of the Agulhas Bank subsystem along with possibly in-
Cape (Fig. 5). The research centers on the marine social-ecological creasedinterannualvariabilityinrecentyears(Blameyetal.,2012),the
system in the area, specifically coastal fisheries. An agricultural com- general warming that occurs in the northern Benguela and Agulhas
ponentofthiscoastalsystemisalsoincorporated,togaininsightinto CurrentsisnotyetapparentontheAgulhasBank(e.g.,Blameyetal.,
thelargernetworkinterplaybetweenterrestrialandmarinesystems. 2015;Jarre et al., 2015). However, there are larger discrepancies be-
South Africa's handline fishery was proclaimed to be in a state of tweenscientificdatasetsfortheAgulhasBankthanforthewestcoast
emergency in 2000, and there followed a massive cut in effort (e.g., subsystemandthepossiblyincreasedinterannualvariability,aswellas
Attwood, 2013). The number of individual rights in the 2005 com- thebioticchanges(Blameyetal.,2015;Watermeyeretal.,2016)are
mercialrightsallocationwasmuchlowerthanthatexpectedbyfishers. warningsignals.Importantly,scientificdataarenotavailabletochar-
Thisgaverisetoapolarizeddebateonsocialjusticeinfaceofresource acterizeoceantemperaturevariabilityand/ortrendsonthebayscale,
scarcity (e.g., van Sittert and Hauck, 2006) and the subsequent class making it difficult for scientists to relate to changes in temperature
action suit (Isaacs, 2011) led to the establishment of “Interim Relief” observedbyfishersinthearea.Thisdiscrepancydrawsattentiontoa
rightsandthenewSmallScaleFisheriesPolicy(SSFP;DAFF,2012).The scale mismatch of data and provides an example of how scale mis-
SSFP is currently implemented along with the existing commercial matchescanresultinknowledgegaps(Gammageetal.,2017a).
rights in the coastal fisheries. Although some linefish stocks are re- Toaddressthisknowledgegap,awatersamplerthatcanbeoper-
covering (Blamey et al., 2015; Winker et al., 2012) and Still Bay has atedfromcommercialski-boatswasco-developedbyskiboatskippers,
witnessed a massive decline in active rightsholders and boats, fishing researchersanddesignspecialists(Duggan,inprep).Theintendedre-
pressureintheregionremainshigh. ductionofmistrustofoceanographersonpartoftheskippers,however,
Principalproblemsintheareaareruralpovertyandloweducation has not yet materialized and the reduction of effort in the area has
levels, documented in the most recent census in 2011. These are ag- reducedthecollectionofdatabelowacriticalthresholdfortheiruse-
gravated by the legacies of Apartheid (Duggan, in prep; Gammage, fulness. Farmers were less reluctant to share their observations on
2015;Norton,2014),andthenowextremelylowmarineresourcebase. rainfall and, while no long-term trend is apparent, changes in inter-
Thisignitesconflictsamonghandlinefishers,andconflictsbetweenthe annualandseasonalvariabilityarecurrentlybeinginvestigated(Ward,
handlinefisheryandtheinshore(bottom)trawlfisherybasedinMossel inprep).
Bay,amultispeciesfishery(Attwoodetal.,2011)targetingsomeline- Whilethisresearchhasnotyetyieldedresultsdirectlyusefulfora
fish as “joint product” (Greenston, 2012). Silver kob (Agyrosomus in- systems approach to management, it is increasing both the trust be-
odorus) in particular are valued in both fisheries. Species-specific by- tweentheSCIFRresearchersandthefishingcommunitiesintheregion,
catch management is under implementation, with the RFA having as,e.g.,witnessedthroughparticipationinotheraction-basedresearch
played a critical role in catalyzing negotiations underlying the (Duggan, in prep) and scenario-building workshops (Gammage, in
prep) The knowledge of processes in the human social and natural
154
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subsystemsdevelopedsofaralreadyisanimportantcontributiontothe evaluating these, as well as carrying out sensitivity testing for set in-
basisonwhichstrategiescanbedevelopedtoimproveresilience. dicatorthresholds.Ifthisisprovided(asinMcGregor,2015),andthe
outputsareinterpretedwithcareinthecontextoftheoriginalconcepts
3. Discussion inanalyzing themessyrealworldproblemonwhichtheyfocus,then
numerical processing is a convenient and effective way to consider
Inclusion of a wide variety of stakeholders, awareness of limited largeamountsofinformation,suchasinsyntheticmodelsoflargersets
predictability and the need for process-oriented research have long of indicators. Since all stakeholders, in this case, had a numerical
been highlighted as crucial to the implementation of system-based background strong enough to understand the concept of indicator
management approaches, including adaptive management in marine standardizationontoacommonscaleandthatofweightedmeans,the
social-ecological systems (Degnbol, 2003; NMFS, 1999, 2009;Ommer process was truly owned by the group (note that Jarre et al. (2008)
andTeam,2007).Arecentevaluationoftherelationshipbetweenthe showthatnumericalandrule-basedapproachesusingnaturallanguage
implementation of system-based management principles with eco- are, in principle interchangeable, and highlight the fact that the spe-
system well-being demonstrates the success of this approach (Bundy cificitiesofthetechniqueareamatterofstakeholderpreference).Ad-
etal.,2016). ditionally,whilethedesignofthemodelitselfinitiallywasrootedinthe
With fisheries legislation considered state-of-the-art at the time EAF expert community (Jarre et al., 2006; Paterson et al., 2007;
(Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA), Act #18 of 1998) and sub- SWG_EAF,2009),inputfromawidervarietyofstakeholdersinapro-
sequentimprovementssuchastheSSFP,SouthAfricahasexpressedthe cessoffacilitationforsociallearning(McGregor,2015;McGregoretal.,
desiretoimplementfisheriesmanagementthatcomplieswithinterna- 2016)suggestedimprovementsnotonlytothemodelpresentation,but
tionalstandards.Thecertificationofthehakedemersaltrawlfisheries also expressed concerns that would potentially modify the current
in the southern Benguela by the Marine Stewardship Council since modeldesign. Whilebeingplaced onthe“parking lot”inthoseparti-
2004,andrankingofSouthAfricamidwayalongtheglobalcontinuum cular focus group meetings, the intention is that these issues will be
offisherygovernancequality(Bundyetal.,2016)indicatesomesuccess scrutinizedinrelevantworkinggroupsandleadtoanimprovedtoolin
in keeping up with international developments. The slow progress in thefuture.
disentanglingloopsinourmetaphoricalGordianknot,however,posesa Opportunities to influence the process are important in participa-
highriskoffallingbehind,tothefurtherdetrimentofboththenatural toryprocessesunderlyingsociallearning(MuroandJeffrey,2008).In
andthehumansocialsubsystemsoftheBenguela. this regard, it is regrettable that the barriers between target-resource
Using three case studies, we have highlighted recent progress in oriented thinkers and those taking an ecosystem approach, as well as
understanding of the processes relevant to improved management in ourshortageofskilledhumanresourcestofacilitateforsociallearning
thefisheriessystemsofthesouthernBenguela,focusingonstakeholder tooccur,havedelayedfurtherdevelopmentofthetoolkitforfisheries
inclusioninsyntheticandpredictivemodelling,facilitationofmultiple onsmallpelagics.
stakeholderprocessesandtrustbuilding.
3.2. Useofqualitativemodelsinstructuringdiscussions
3.1. Modellingwithstakeholders
Itneedstobeborneinmindthatthesecond-prototypeknowledge-
The success of the Penguin Pressure Model Working Group in a) based tool developed by McGregor (2015) relied on an agreed set of
establishing afunctioning system modelofpenguin dynamics inmul- management objectives in an ecosystem context, which had been in-
tiple colonies while b) atsame time, providing apermanent platform itiatedbytheecosystemriskassessment(Neletal.,2007).Management
fornetworkingamongecologistsinacademicandgovernmentinstitu- objectivesagreedonbyalargegroupofstakeholdersdonotyetexistin
tions, conservation practitioners and managers and social scientists, the small-scale fisheries (McGregor et al., 2016; Raemaekers, pers.
corroboratesthefindingsonbenefitsofmediatedmodellinginVanden comm.),butareindevelopmentforthehumandimensionsoftheoff-
Belt(2004).Inthiscase,itwasthesharedvisionofimplementingthe shore fisheries, as well as generally for the governance aspects of the
PenguinBiodiversityManagementPlanamongthestakeholders,along dimension“abilitytoachieve”.
withtheneedtohaveafunctioningmodelthatincludedseveraldrivers Evaluating interviews and focus group meetings, Paterson et al.
of penguin dynamics as counterbalance to a powerful, yet far more (2010,2015)usedvaluetrees(objectivehierarchies)tomakeexplicit
limitedapproachinthemainstream,target-resourceorientedfisheries the value systems of stakeholders in the industrialized fisheries, who
discourse, as well as dedicated emphasis of the importance of the in- arebeingkeptsilentinthepresent(centralizedneoclassical)manage-
clusivityofmultipleperspectivesthat,takentogether,werethebasisfor mentparadigm.Indoingso,sheusedconceptualmodelsasvehiclefor
success,bothinfosteringcohesionandgeneratingaconcretetool. structuring discussions on management objectives in human dimen-
In a situation of a considerably lower degree of consensus among sions, and for guiding the process of identifying potential indicators.
stakeholders, McGregor's (2015) research showed how a synthetic Such conceptual models, which also include cognitive maps (e.g.,
model - the evaluation of the ecological well-being of the sardine BeltonandStewart,2002),arereadilyunderstoodbyawidevarietyof
fisheryinthesouthernBenguelaintermsofpressureandstateasdis- stakeholders andprovide an alternative tool to large volumes of text.
cussed in our case study 1 - could be used as a boundary object to They are still models, purposeful simplifications of a complex reality,
increasetheunderstandingofpathwaysintothecomplexityofanEAF butcanveryreadilybeadaptedasunderstandingincreases.
(sensuFig.2.2.inVandenBelt,2004).Inthisway,consensusamong Usingdocumentedinformationfromstakeholders,socialandhealth
stakeholderswasenhanced,anecessarysteptowardstheimplementa- research, Paterson et al. (2010, 2015) then compiled first prototype
tion of an EAF. The process confirmed, in practice, the argument of models to evaluate the well-being in the human dimensions of the
Jarre et al. (2008) for the usefulness of small synthetic models. This South African small pelagics and Namibian hake trawl fisheries. The
development represents an important step forward from the earlier ownershipoftheoperationalobjectivesbroughtforwardremainedwith
ecosystemriskassessmentandreviews(Neletal.,2007;Petersenetal., the participants in this process, empowering them by giving them a
2010) not only in widening stakeholder engagement, but also in in- voice. This resulted in the building of bridges to other “strategic” as-
creasingscientificrigor(intermsofusingtheavailabledatabaseina sessments where the voices of many stakeholders continue to be un-
transparentandrepeatablemanner)inevaluatingpressuresandstateof heard. The lessons learnt from both our quantitative and qualitative
theecologicalwell-beingofthesardinefisherysystem. modellingwithstakeholdershighlighttheneedforadequatefeedback
Any management tool requires documenting the assumptions in- loops between analyst(s) and stakeholders to maintain trust in this
herent in translations of concepts into numbers, and the testing and processoftranslation.Importantly,however,asB.Patersonputitinher
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A.Jarreetal. Journal of Marine Systems 188 (2018) 149–159
keynote attheIMBERIMBIZOinOctober 2015,models(traditionally Numerousotherglobalinitiativesaretacklingvariousaspectsthat
the domain of the natural sciences) carry a lot of power. The above underlieintegratedassessmentsofmarineecosystems.Inlinewithre-
exampleshowshowthispowercanbeharnessedfortheimplementa- commendations by NMFS (2009), the requirements of the European
tionofanintegratedapproachtooceanmanagement. Marine Framework Directive (e.g., Borja et al., 2010), and based on
pioneering results in five regions of the USA (https://www.
3.3. “Soft”predictabilityandstructureddecisionmaking integratedecosystemassessment.noaa.gov/publications/index.html),
the international fisheries scientific community is currently grappling
Our results demonstrate the useful contribution that approaches with the integration of human dimensions into integrated ecosystem
using soft predictability (sensu Degnbol, 2003) — understood as in- assessmentsspanningmultipleoceanusesandsectors,including:fish-
clusionofexpertopinionindynamicmodelsandinterpretationofnu- eries, renewable energy, coastal development, oil and gas, transport,
merical model outputs in the real world, in a qualitative rather than and conservation. To this end, an international symposium was con-
quantitative manner — can make in fisheries management in the vened in Brest, France in 2016 on “Understanding marine socio-eco-
southernBenguela.Wehavealsoshownthattechniquesofstructured logical systems: including the human dimension in Integrated Eco-
decisionmakingareapplicableacrossinshoreandoffshorefisheries,by system Assessments” (MSEAS) (Link et al., 2017). The MSEAS
definingobjectives,linkingindicatorsandusingexistingmethodology symposium highlighted that advances were made by inclusivity and
toarriveatapointwheretradeoffdecisionscanbemadeinaninclusive systems thinking, and the synthetic use of multiple models. These
andtransparentway. generally resulted in an increased focus on the need for integration
Importantly,however,thesetoolsrelyonallstakeholdersinagiven across the natural and social sciences, with a pragmatic emphasis on
case being willing to meet and actively contribute to the process of solutions and actions. The tools developed in the three case studies
picking one promising loop in the Gordian knot. Perceived and real presented here thus seems to be well on track interms ofdeveloping
powerimbalancesremainakeyimpedimentinthisregard,notonlyin global perspectives, and — even though we have been focusing on
the coastal, but also in the offshore fisheries. We have learnt that fa- fisheries—thesetoolscanbeadaptedbytheMSEAScommunity.
cilitationoftrustbuildingandsociallearningisnotonlykey,butalso Thereisacontinuedneed,intheBenguelaandglobally,tounder-
showsrealpotentialinSouthAfrica.ThelingeringlegacyofApartheid standprocessesinthehumansocialsubsystems,includingtherolesof
slows downtrust buildingand social learning processes, but does not power,gender,race,ethnicityandethics(e.g.Cowardetal.,2000).In
renderthemimpossible. hiskeynoteaddressatMSEAS,E.D.Allison(UniversityofWashington,
The critical component of trust building underlines the need for USA) emphasized the necessity for an improved understanding of the
medium-tolong-termresearchfunding,togeneratebothgooddataand role ofhistory (e.g., OmmerandPaterson, 2014), andurged thefish-
good processes to assist management. It also highlights the need for eries community to keep implementing a paradigm shift from opti-
adequatelytrainedresearchers.Itisparticularlywithrespecttothelatter mizingcontroltooptimizinghealth(e.g.,OmmerandTeam,2007;Neis
thatothercountriesseemtobeonafastertrackthanSouthAfrica. andOmmer,2016)astheoverarchinggoalofintegratedmanagement.
While the opening up of the human dimensions to get beyond eco-
3.4. Lessonslearntforglobalmarinesocial-ecologicalsystemsresearchin nomicsisalsotakingplaceinBenguelaresearch(e.g.,Sowmanetal.,
supportofmanagement 2013),sufficientbreadthanddepthofstudiesintothehumandimen-
sions in support of ecosystem justice (as opposed to exclusive foci on
Inwhatfollows,wediscusslessonslearntfromourresearchinthe either restorative justice or social justice) and a systems approach to
internationalcontext.Wehighlightinputintothecurrentdiscourseson human activities in the oceans, will require more skilled researchers
IntegratedEcosystemAssessments,facilitationofmultiplestakeholder and increased buy-in on part of research institutions, including uni-
processesasabasisfornegotiatingtradeoffs,andalternativemanage- versities, tothebenefitsofinter-andtransdisciplinary collaborations.
mentinstitutions. ThishastohappenregardlessofthecurrentcontextofdecreasingState
fundingforresearch.Inthisregard,enhancedinternationalnetworking
- Integratedecosystemassessments appearstobethekeytomakingprogress.Ourpromisingresultshigh-
lighttheneedfor,andpotentialof,long-termengagement,particularly
Ecosystem assessments are multi-faceted and fast developing. For insocietieswithacolonialgovernancepast.Theyunderlinethevalueof
example,initially,thestatusoftheSouthernBenguelawasassessedina co-designandparticipatoryresearchinaugmentingtheunderstanding
comparative contextacross fishedmarineecosystemsusingecological ofprocessesinhumansocialcommunities,andhighlightthepotential
indicators alone (Shin and Shannon, 2010). Detailed analyses along of tangible boundary objects, such as the water sampler, to keep the
these lines led to recognition of environmental and human drivers as research-althoughdirectedatunderstandingprocessesinthehuman
integral to the interpretation and understanding of the state of, and dimension-focusedontheinterfaceofsocialandecologicalwell-being
trendsobservedin,marineecosystems(Shinetal.,2012).Asaresult, astheendgoal.
indicator-based ecosystem assessments that accounted for environ- InlinewiththeIndiSeasIIapproach(Shinetal.,2012),andasre-
mental processes, and their effects on observed ecosystem dynamics, commended generally for systems approaches, we will continue to
are being explored in an effort to enhance and refine ecosystem as- focusontheinclusionofasufficientlycomprehensivesetofindicators,
sessments(Lockerbieetal.,2016,2017,2018).Inparallel,humandi- ratherthanlimitingthesetofindicatorsconsideredtothoseforwhich
mension indicators have been assembled to assist in assessing the ef- data are currently available. As demonstrated through our work
fectiveness of management, and the quality of governance, both (McGregor,2015;McGregoretal.,2016),managementofthesouthern
importantfactorsindeterminingthestatusoffishedmarineecosystems Benguela fisheries (and other human activities in the ocean) will re-
(Bundyetal.,2016).Thislineofmulti-facetedthinkingiswellestab- quire facilitation for social learning if we are to achieve wide accep-
lishedinglobalinitiativestoassessecosystems,theservicestheypro- tance of an integrated approach, agreement on objective hierarchies
videandthechangestheyareundergoing.Aprimeexampleisthatof and optimization of the sets of indicators and selection and inter-
the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and pretationoftheirunderlyingdata,aswellasfurtherdevelopmentofthe
Ecosystem Services (IPBES), which, through regional and global as- approach. For this, overcoming the current shortage of skilled facil-
sessments across terrestrial, freshwater and marine biomes, strives to itatorswillbekey.
assessbiodiversityandtheservicesprovidedtosocietybyecosystems
(Díazetal.,2015).Thishasbeeninresponsetorequirementsandneeds - Facilitation of multiple stakeholder processes as a basis for nego-
expressedbydecisionmakers. tiatingtradeoffs
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A.Jarreetal. Journal of Marine Systems 188 (2018) 149–159
As a prerequisite to inclusive management, stakeholders need to farbehindbutprogressing.Transdisciplinaryapproacheswereinitiated
meet in the same room and feel secure about speaking up, which is adecadeagoandarelikewisedeveloping,althoughmainstreamingon
easier in some situations (e.g., the above small pelagic fisheries case equal footing with disciplinary research remains a distant goal.
study)thanothers(e.g.,insmall-scalefisheries).Puttingsustainedef- Research approaches to tackling issues in fisheries (and ocean) man-
fortintotrustbuildingincommunitiesandamongstakeholderswillbe agement are broadly in line with global developments in integrated
required. One has to accept that this may take a long time, not only assessmentsandmanagement,eventhoughimplementationishindered
becauseofentrenchedadministrativeandpowerstructures,butalsoin by centralized bureaucracy in a neoclassical economics management
view of the devastating legacy of Apartheid, which seared into many paradigm. Continued focus on the development of transdisciplinary
contemporary people's minds the inferiority of some to others. In her approaches and better involvement in existing and developing part-
studyintocomplianceinsouthernBenguelafisheries,however,Norton nerships with programs and networks in countries that remain at the
(2014)highlights theexistingpotentialinmanycoastalcommunities, forefrontoftheimplementationofasystemsapproach,willbekeyto
which could be empowered if institutions can be developed that stayingontrack.Indoingso,itneedstobeacknowledgedthatSouth
achievelegitimacyandaccountability.Resultssuchastheseshowthat Africa,alongwithotherdevelopingsocieties,hasan(even)longerway
the necessary changes could, in principle, be accelerated from inter- to go than many countries bordering the North Atlantic and adjacent
generationaltimescalestomultipleyears. seas, as well as Australia, in terms of stakeholder mobilization and
Engagingmultiplestakeholdersas“interestedandaffectedparties”, acknowledgement of the legitimacy of different value systems. We
and acknowledging a much wider set of management objectives, will suggestthatthetoolswehaveadaptedanddeveloped-boundaryob-
requireus(andcolleaguesworldwide)tolearnhowtoconducttrade-off jectsco-developedwithstakeholders,betheysmallmodelsortangible
negotiations in a transparent way that is acceptable to all involved. devicessuchasawatersampler,facilitationforsociallearning,co-de-
SouthAfricastillhasalottolearnfrominternationalprogressonhow signed research responding to local needs, e.g., for capacity building,
toapproachtypesoftrade-offs(e.g.,Dawetal.,2015;Tenbrunseletal., andoverlayingofseeminglydisparatebodiesofknowledge-beadapted
2009). In addition to the application of established techniques of anddevelopedfurtherinothermarinecontexts.Wethereforeempha-
structureddecisionmaking(e.g.,Gregoryetal.,2012),sociallearning sizetheneedforalong-termapproachwhich,inturn,impliestheneed
has shown potential as a tool, and its application should be further forlong-termfunding,atleastinpartindependentfromgovernments,
developed. Transdisciplinary scenario analyses, such as those con- suchascurrentlyprovidedbyresearchfoundationsandNGOs.Inview
ductedinacoastalfisheryinKenya(Dawetal.,2015),bearpromisein of the ongoing weakness of, and inertia in, State departments, alter-
making stakeholders aware of the multiplicity of objectives in ecolo- nativemanagementinstitutionswilllikelyneedtoevolvetoworkwith
gical, social, economic andinstitutional dimensions, andthe needfor relevant government departments and a multitude of stakeholders in
trade-offs.Assuggested byDawetal.,developmentofsuchscenarios order to achieve progress towards sustainability on the triple bottom
and scholarly valid analyses of “who wins” versus “who loses” are a line. In this way, the proverbial Gordian knot can be carefully disen-
promisingstepforward,andwillbeattemptedinonecommunityinthe tangled without cutting through crucial components of southern
southernCapeaspartofSCIFRinthenearfuture(Gammage,inprep). Benguela(orother)fisheries.
- Alternativemanagementinstitutions Acknowledgements
InviewoftheweaknessofrelevantSouthAfricangovernmentde- We gratefully acknowledge major funding by the South African
partments(e.g.,Cochraneetal.,2009;Norton,2014)andthesuccessof ResearchChairsInitiativeoftheDepartmentofScienceandTechnology
theRFA,outcomesoftheEAFreviewworkshop(McGregoretal.,2016) and the National Research Foundation (Grant No. 65238), as well as
suggestedthattheestablishmentofamanagementinstitutionfocusing funding by the University of Cape Town and the National Research
onthehumandimensionsofanEAFwouldbedesirableasacounterpart Foundation through free-standing scholarships and travel funds.
tothenegotiationsofsolutionstoimproveecologicalwell-beinginthe FundingwasalsomadeavailablefromtheCommissionoftheEuropean
RFA.FollowingonCanadianresults,andgoinghand-in-handwithfirst CommunitiesthroughtheDARMA(AFS/2009/219017),MEECE(FP7/
steps towards de-centralization in South Africa — such as the im- 212085)andECOFISH(EuropeAid2010/222387)projects.Oursincere
plementation of bycatch regulations through inshore and offshore thanks go to the past Chairs (other than LJS) of the now disbanded
bottom trawl fisheries associations, and the envisaged small-scale DAFF/DEA EAF-Scientific Working Group, Drs R.J.M. Crawford, L.
fishingco-operatives—itwillbeimportanttoconsiderasuiteofsuch Hutchings and C.M. van der Lingen, for discussions and input to the
managementinstitutions,rangingfromregional(e.g.,southernCape)to projects synthesized here, as well as to the other members of this
provincialtonational.Usingtheprincipleofembeddednesshighlighted workinggroup.WearedeeplygratefultotheSouthAfricanandinter-
byFoleyetal.(2015),negotiationswiththeRFAcouldtakeplaceon nationalco-supervisorsofthestudents'thesisresearch,forgenerously
any of these levels and might then foster compromise between the givingoftheirtimeandexpertise.Lastnotleast,wethanktheScientific
needs of large industry, conservation, and sustainable livelihoods in SteeringCommitteeofUCTMA-RE'sconference“BenguelaSymposium
coastalcommunities.AsachievedbytheRFA,theseinstitutionsshould 2016:Opportunity,Challenge,Change”forinvitingthiscontribution.
workwiththesuiteofrelevantgovernmentdepartmentstotheextent
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