Table Of Content

UNLOCKING W THE LAW OF A EVIDENCE L E H 4th edition Dr Charanjit Singh T G N I K C O L N U Cover image: putilich/Getty Images Fourth edition published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Charanjit Singh The right of Charanjit Singh to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. 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First edition published by Hodder Education 2009 Third edition published by Routledge 2016 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-25275-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-25273-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-28243-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003282433 Typeset in Palatino by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents Guide to the book xii Acknowledgements xiv Preface xv List of fi gures xvi T able of cases xvii T able of statutes and other instruments xxx 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBSTANTIVE LAW OF EVIDENCE 1 2 THE LAW OF EVIDENCE: THE BURDENS AND STANDARDS OF PROOF 27 3 TESTIMONY OF WITNESSES 79 4 THE DISCLOSURE OF EVIDENCE AND PROTECTION FROM DISCLOSURE: PRIVILEGE AND PUBLIC INTEREST IMMUNITY 131 5 SILENCE: THE EFFECT ON AN ACCUSATION 159 6 COURSE OF TRIAL 181 7 HEARSAY: THE EXCLUSIONARY RULE 251 8 HEARSAY: ADMISSIBILITY IN CRIMINAL CASES 283 9 HEARSAY: CIVIL CASES 303 10 CONFESSIONS AND EVIDENCE OBTAINED UNLAWFULLY 313 11 BAD CHARACTER EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS 339 12 ADMISSIBILITY OF BAD CHARACTER EVIDENCE OF WITNESSES AND DEFENDANTS 365 1 3 CORROBORATION, LIES, CARE WARNINGS AND IDENTIFICATION EVIDENCE 429 1 4 OPINION, DOCUMENTARY AND REAL EVIDENCE 451 I ndex 474 iv S T N E T N O C Detailed contents Guide to the book xii Acknowledgements xiv Preface xv List of fi gures xvi T able of cases xvii T able of statutes and other instruments xxx 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBSTANTIVE LAW OF EVIDENCE 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1 .2 The exclusionary approach of the English law of evidence 2 1 .3 Types of judicial evidence 6 1 .3.1 Direct or percipient evidence 6 1.3.2 Circumstantial evidence 6 1.3.3 Hearsay 7 1.3.4 Original evidence 7 1 .3.5 Primary and secondary evidence 8 1.3.6 Conclusive evidence 8 1 .3.7 Presumptive or prima facie evidence 9 1 .3.8 Oral evidence or testimony 9 1.3.9 Real evidence 9 1.4 Facts 10 1 .4.1 Facts in issue: criminal cases 10 1 .4.2 Facts in issue: civil cases 10 1 .4.3 Facts in issue: formal admissions 11 1 .4.4 Facts in issue: collateral facts 12 1 .4.5 Facts in issue: relevant facts 12 1 .5 Admissibility, weight and discretion 14 1.5.1 Admissibility 14 1.5.2 Weight 15 1.5.3 Discretion 15 1 .6 Judge and jury 16 1 .6.1 Questions of law 17 1 .6.2 Questions of fact 18 1 .7 Instances in which proof is unnecessary 19 1 .8 The binding nature of judicial fi ndings 23 1 .9 Procedural rules: criminal and civil 24 Further reading 26 2 THE LAW OF EVIDENCE: THE BURDENS AND STANDARDS OF PROOF 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.1.1 Several burdens 28 2.1.2 Legal burden 28 2.1.3 Evidential burden 28 2 .1.4 Evidential burden of proof? 29 2 .1.5 Party with legal and evidential burdens 31 2 .1.6 Separate evidential burden 31 2 .1.7 Importance of distinguishing legal and evidential burdens 32 2 .2 Incidence of the legal burden of proof 32 2.2.1 Civil cases 33 2 .2.2 Criminal cases – general rule – the ‘golden thread’ theory 39 vi 2 .2.3 Exceptions in criminal cases 41 2.3 Evidential burden 61 S 2 .3.1 Shifting of the evidential burden 61 T N E 2 .4 Standards of proof 62 T N 2.4.1 Criminal cases 62 O 2 .4.2 Discharge of the legal burden by the accused 64 C D 2 .4.3 Discharge of the legal burden in civil cases 65 E L 2 .4.4 Discharge of the evidential burden 69 AI T 2.5 Tactical burden 72 E D Further reading 76 3 TESTIMONY OF WITNESSES 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3 .2 Attendance of witnesses at court 79 3 .3 Order of presentation of evidence 80 3 .3.1 Re-opening the prosecution case 82 3 .4 Evidence: sworn/unsworn or solemn affi rmation 84 3.4.1 Oath 84 3.4.2 Solemn affi rmation 86 3 .5 Competence and compellability of witnesses 86 3.5.1 Civil cases 86 3.5.2 Sworn evidence 86 3 .5.3 Unsworn evidence of children in civil cases 87 3.5.4 Criminal cases 88 3.5.5 Sworn/unsworn evidence 94 3.5.6 The defendant 95 3 .5.7 The defendant’s spouse/civil partner in criminal cases 98 3 .6 Special measures directions 103 3 .7 Witness anonymity orders 117 3.8 Miscellaneous 123 3 .9 Training or coaching of witnesses/familiarisation 124 Further reading 128 4 THE DISCLOSURE OF EVIDENCE AND PROTECTION FROM DISCLOSURE: PRIVILEGE AND PUBLIC INTEREST IMMUNITY 131 4.1 Introduction 131 4.2 Disclosure 132 4.3 Privilege 136 4 .3.1 Privilege against self-incrimination 136 4 .3.2 Legal professional privilege 141 4.4 Journalistic privilege 146 4 .5 Negotiations without prejudice 147 4 .6 Public interest immunity 148 4 .6.1 Requirements on party seeking disclosure 152 vii 4 .6.2 Necessity of disclosure 154 4.6.3 Public policy 154 D 4 .6.4 Waiver and objection 155 E T 4 .6.5 Contrasting privilege and PII 156 A IL Further reading 158 E D C 5 SILENCE: THE EFFECT ON AN ACCUSATION 159 O N T E 5.1 Introduction 159 N T S 5 .2 The historical development and signifi cance of silence 159 5 .3 Silence at common law 161 5 .4 Silence under the CJPOA 1994 163 5 .4.1 Section 34 – failure to mention facts when questioned 165 5 .4.2 Section 35 – a failure to testify 171 5 .4.3 Section 36 – failure to account for objects, substances or marks that incriminate the accused 174 5 .5 Human rights: fair trials and adverse inferences 177 Further reading 180 6 COURSE OF TRIAL 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6 .2 Examination in chief 182 6 .2.1 No leading questions 182 6 .2.2 Refreshing the memory of witnesses 183 6 .2.3 Unfavourable and hostile witnesses 194 6 .2.4 Previous consistent statements (self-serving or narrative statements or the rule against manufactured evidence) 201 6.3 Cross-examination 213 6 .3.1 Sections 41–43 of the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 213 6 .3.2 Chapter II – protection from cross-examination by the accused in person 226 6.3.3 Omission to cross-examine 227 6.3.4 Distinction between cross-examination as to issue and credit 227 6.3.5 Sections 4 and 5 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1865 (previous inconsistent statements) 231 6.3.6 Finality of answers to questions in cross-examination as to credit 234 6.3.7 Exceptions to the Hitchcock rule 235 Further reading 248 7 HEARSAY: THE EXCLUSIONARY RULE 251 7.1 Introduction 251 7 .2 Classifying evidence as hearsay evidence 255 viii 7 .2.1 Rationale for exclusion 256 7 .3 A different (inclusionary) approach under the Criminal S Justice Act 2003 – in outline 256 T N 7 .3.1 Previous statements or assertions – analysis of hearsay 258 E T 7 .3.2 The purpose of tendering the evidence 262 N O 7 .3.3 Statements relevant only to truth 262 C D 7 .3.4 Original evidence/non-hearsay statements 263 E L 7 .4 The common law exceptions to the rule 271 AI T 7.4.1 The r es gestae 271 E D 7 .4.2 Statements evidencing the physical or mental state of the maker 274 7 .4.3 Statements by the deceased 274 7 .4.4 Declarations against an interest 275 7 .4.5 Declarations in the course of a duty 275 7 .4.6 Public documents containing facts 276 7.4.7 Informal admissions 276 7.4.8 Binding admissions 277 7 .4.9 Substance: what can be admitted? 278 7.5 Non-hearsay confessions 278 7.5.1 Other statements 279 Further reading 282 8 HEARSAY: ADMISSIBILITY IN CRIMINAL CASES 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8 .2 The statutory exceptions and criminal cases 283 8 .2.1 The interests of justice 285 8 .3 Statutory exceptions and documentary hearsay 287 8 .4 The safeguards: ss 124–126 293 8 .5 Further exceptions to the hearsay rule 295 8.6 Other issues 296 8 .7 The impact of human rights on the admission of hearsay evidence 297 Further reading 301 9 HEARSAY: CIVIL CASES 303 9.1 Introduction 303 9 .2 The use of hearsay evidence in civil cases 303 9 .2.1 The Civil Evidence Act 1995 304 9 .2.2 Section 1 CEA 1995 304 9 .2.3 Section 2 CEA 1995 305 9 .2.4 Section 3 CEA 1995 305 9 .2.5 Section 4 CEA 1995: weight 306 9 .2.6 Section 5 CEA 1995: competence and credibility 307 9 .2.7 Section 6 CEA 1995: previous statements 307 9 .2.8 Section 7 CEA 1995: common law 307 9 .2.9 Section 8 CEA 1995 308 9 .2.10 Sections 9 and 10 CEA 1995 308 ix Further reading 311 10 CONFESSIONS AND EVIDENCE OBTAINED D UNLAWFULLY 313 E T A 10.1 Introduction 313 ILE D 1 0.2 The common law development of confession evidence 313 C O 10.2.1 Defi nition of a confession 315 N T 10.2.2 Admissibility 317 E N 10.2.3 Exclusion: general 317 T S 10.3 Exclusion: specifi c 318 1 0.3.1 Section 76 and exclusion by reason of oppression 319 1 0.3.2 Section 76 and exclusion by reason of unreliability 320 10.3.3 Causation 323 1 0.4 Exclusion of evidence under s 78 of the PACE 1984 324 1 0.5 The effect of exclusion 326 1 0.6 Presentation of confession evidence 327 1 0.6.1 Remarks that are prejudicial to a defendant 328 1 0.6.2 Remarks that exculpate or incriminate a defendant 328 1 0.6.3 Remarks that incriminate a co-accused 328 1 0.7 Challenging and using confession evidence 329 1 0.8 Confessions made by mentally handicapped persons 332 1 0.9 Other illegally obtained evidence 333 Further reading 337 11 BAD CHARACTER EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS 339 11.1 Introduction 339 1 1.2 Meaning of character evidence prior to the Criminal Justice Act 2003 339 11.3 Good character 341 1 1.3.1 Directions as to good character 342