United States History

874 Pages·2016·142.578 MB·English

by  Savvas Learning Co

[ ESSENTIAL QUESTION ] How Much Does Geography Affect
People’s Lives?
America’s Cultural Roots
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World War II 1 14.3 America Enters World War II
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Topic 1 America’s Cultural Roots
Enduring Understandings
• Native Americans developed unique forms of
agriculture and civilization.
• Trade brought West African civilizations into
contact with Europe and the Muslim world.
• During the 1400s, Europeans explored new lands
and new ideas.
• Both the Spanish and the French exploited the
resources of the Americas.
>> Mississippian period (c.
800–1600) clay pot from Cahokia,
Illinois
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1.1
The people who first inhabited
North and South America found a
land rich in resources and varied in
geographic features. As they spread
out across the land, they developed
distinctive ways of living and
surviving. Their cultures represent
a central part of our heritage and
history.
>> Cliff Palace pueblo, in what is now
southern Colorado, contains nearly 220
rooms. The circular chambers are entryways
to kivas, which were large underground
rooms used for religious ceremonies and
political meetings.
Flipped Video
The Peoples of the
>> Objectives
Explain how American Indians may have
come to North America.
Americas
Describe the process by which different
American Indian groups and cultures
developed.
Describe the major culture areas prior to the
arrival of Europeans in North America. Early Inhabitants of the Americas
Scholars refer to the first humans to live in the Americas as Paleo-
>> Key Terms
Indians. They think these people came from Siberia, a region in Asia
ice age
that lies just across the narrow Bering Strait from Alaska. Scholars
migrated
disagree, however, about when and how the Paleo-Indians arrived.
Aztecs
adobe
Iroquois League Migration to the Americas Until recently, most scholars insisted
Maya that the first Americans were hunters who arrived about 15,000 years
ago. At that time, the world was experiencing an ice age, a period
lasting thousands of years during which the Earth was covered by
ice and glaciers. Much of the planet’s seawater was frozen in polar ice
caps.
Because of this, the sea level fell as much as 360 feet below today’s
level. The lower sea levels exposed a land bridge between Siberia
and Alaska. Scholars believe Paleo-Indian hunters crossed this land
bridge in pursuit of their favored prey—immense mammals such as
mammoths,mastodons, and giant bison.
However, recent discoveries have led some scholars today to
question the land bridge theory. These scholars have developed the
coastal route theory, suggesting that the first Americans migrated,
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or traveled, from Asia as many as 40,000 years ago. varying local climates and environments. Over time,
These were coastal peoples who gathered wild plants their languages, rituals, mythic stories, and kinship
and hunted seals and small whales. According to this systems became more complex and varied. By 1492,
view, the first people to arrive in the Americas arrived American Indians spoke at least 375 distinct languages,
in small boats, eventually working their way down the including Athapaskan, Algonquian, Caddoan, Siouan,
west coasts of North and South America. Shoshonean, and Iroquoian. Each language group
divided into many groups later called nations.
Climate Change Encourages Adaptation Scholars In turn, these subdivided into many smaller groups
do agree that about 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, the that identified with a particular village or hunting
climate warmed. As temperatures rose, the polar ice territory. Each group was headed by a chief,who was
melted and the oceans rose close to present-day levels. usually advised by a council of elders.
Together, the warming climate and the spread of
skilled Paleo-Indian hunters killed off the mammoths Agriculture Emerges Some of these peoples learned
and other large mammals. Meanwhile, the environment how to domesticate wild plants so that they could be
became more diverse. The northern grasslands shrank planted and grown for food. About 3,500 years ago in
while forests expanded northward. central Mexico, American Indians developed three
Paleo-Indians adapted by relying less on hunting important crops: maize (corn), squashes, and beans.
large mammals and more on fishing and on gathering The expanded food supply promoted population
nuts, berries, and roots. They also developed tracking growth, which led to larger, permanent villages. In
techniques needed for hunting small, mobile animals Mexico, some villages grew into great cities ruled by
such as deer, antelope, moose, elk, and caribou. The powerful chiefs. Residents built large pyramids topped
broader array of new food sources led to population with temples. By carefully studying the sun, moon, and
growth. As the population grew, it expanded throughout stars, the Mexican peoples developed precise calendars
the North and South American continents. of the seasons and the days. Along the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean coast, the leading peoples were the
Diverse Cultures Emerge American Indians Olmecs and later the Maya. In the highlands of central
became culturally diverse as they adapted to their Mexico, the Aztecs became the most powerful people.
Migration to the Americas
ARCTIC OCEAN
ASIA
60°N
Bering Sea NORTH
AMERICA
N
30°N W E
Gulf of Mexico
S
PACIFIC
OCEAN
0°
SOUTH ATLANTIC
AMERICA
OCEAN KEY
0 2,000 mi
30°S Land bridge
0 2,000 km
Glaciers
Miller Cylindrical
Projection Coastal-route theory
60°W Land-bridge theory
120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E

>> The first people to come to the Americas spread slowly across the continents.
Analyze Maps What geographical features may have caused people to keep moving Timeline
south?
America’s Cultural Roots 5 1.1 The Peoples of the Americas
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From Mexico, the methods of learning how to plant, Early Cultures in North
cultivate, and harvest crops slowly spread northward.
America
By about A.D. 1200, crop cultivation was common in the
American Southwest, Midwest, Southeast, and parts Early people grew in numbers and developed permanent
of the Northeast. villages in areas where farming was practiced. A little
In some places, people clung to a traditional mix of more than 2,000 years ago such villages began to
hunting, gathering, and fishing. Some lived in regions appear in what would later become the United States.
that were too cold or dry for farming, such as the frigid
subarctic regions of Alaska, the Sierra Nevada, the The Southwest The first farming villages north of
Rocky Mountains, and the arid western Great Plains present-day Mexico emerged in the arid Southwest.
and Great Basin. In addition, coastal peoples in what is There, the cultivation of crops required building ponds,
now California and the Pacific Northwest did not need dams, and ditches in order to irrigate, or bring water
to farm because their fishing—usually for salmon— to, the fields. Building such complex systems required
and their gathering of nuts, seeds, and berries was so leadership by a group of priests and chiefs.
productive. The Hohokams lived in the Gila and Salt river
valleys of present-day southern Arizona. Over the
IDENTIFY MAIN IDEAS Why do some scholars course of their history, they built more than 500 miles of
believe the ice age led to the migration of people to the irrigation canals. The Hohokam irrigation canals were
Americas? so elaborate that later peoples referred to the Hohokams
as Canal Builders.
In their largest village, about 1,000 people inhabited
row houses built of adobe, a type of sun-dried brick.
Some of the houses were three stories tall.
The Anasazis occupied the upland canyons in the
Four Corners region at the intersection of what is now
Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado. At Chaco
Canyon, the Anasazis built an especially complex
village that required 30,000 tons of sandstone blocks.
This site became the center of the Anasazi world. Some
of the multistory dwellings, known as pueblos, rose five
stories and had about 600 rooms.
Between A.D. 1100 and 1300, both the Hohokams and
the Anasazis experienced a severe crisis as a prolonged
drought reduced crops. The resulting famine led to
violence between rival villages that were competing for
scarce resources.
The crisis broke up both the Hohokam and Anasazi
villages. Most of the Anasazis moved south and east
in search of water. They resettled along the Rio Grande
and Pecos River in present-day New Mexico. Today,
they are known as the Pueblo peoples.
The Mississippians Unlike the arid Southwest, the
Mississippi River valley has a humid and temperate
climate. The Mississippi River collects the waters of
wide-ranging tributaries, including the Ohio, Missouri,
Arkansas, and Red rivers.
The people from this area, known as the
Mississippians, were influenced by the great cultures
of Mexico. They built large towns around central
plazas, featuring pyramids made of earth. At the top
>> Mayan knowledge of astronomy and building
contributed to the construction of large pyramids like of the pyramids, they built wooden temples that also
the Temple of Kukulkan at the ancient city of Chichen served as the residences of chiefs.
Itza.
America’s Cultural Roots 6 1.1 The Peoples of the Americas
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AMERICA 1492
BEFORE
POPULATED URBAN CENTERS TECHNOLOGICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
POPULATION AT PEAK OF OCCUPANCY
HIEROGLYPHIC
CALENDARS
WRITING
CAHOKIA 10,000
TEOTIHUACAN 125,000–200,000
CANALS IRRIGATION RUBBER
TENOCHTITLAN 200,000
PARIS* 300,000 ASTRONOMY MATHEMATICS
*Largest city in the world c. 1520
ARCHITECTURAL 481
FEET
200
ACHIEVEMENTS 92 FEET FEET
Sources: The Native Population of the 954 FEET 774 FEET 730 FEET 730 FEET 756 FEET 756 FEET
Americas in 1492; Encyclopædia Britannica;
MONK’S MOUND PYRAMID OF THE SUN GREAT PYRAMID
Ghilderman.org; Penn State University;
History.com; Cahokiamounds.org; CAHOKIA TEOTIHUACAN GIZA, EGYPT
>> Analyze Information What details from this infographic support the claim that
American Indians developed complex civilizations before 1492?
The largest and wealthiest city of the Mississippian When Europeans first arrived, the Great Plains probably
culture was at Cahokia in present-day southwestern supported more than 20 million bison.
Illinois. Cahokia benefited from being located near During the ninth century, some Mississippians
the confluence of the Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, and moved westward up the major river valleys onto the
Mississippi rivers. The site provided fertile soil and Great Plains. They built villages and planted crops
excellent trade connections with distant groups. At beside the rivers. In the hotter southern valleys, people
its peak in the year 1100, Cahokia had a population lived in well-ventilated beehive-shaped houses made
of at least 10,000 people and perhaps as many as from wooden frames covered with grass thatch.
40,000. During the twelfth century, Cahokia’s residents
In colder northern valleys, villagers built log lodges
abandoned the city.
well insulated with earth. In the summer, villagers
As in the Southwest, evidence suggests that an ventured on foot onto the plains to hunt bison. While
environmental crisis led to social conflict. The growing on the hunt, they lived in mobile camps. Their shelters
population had depleted the soil and decreased the were called tepees—cone-shaped tents of tanned
numbers of deer. Hunger led to disease and to fighting bison hides stretched over a frame of cottonwood poles.
among villages. Although Cahokia disappeared,
Great Plains villagers sometimes clashed with
Mississippian culture still thrived to the south at
nomads who came from the Rocky Mountains to the
Moundville in Alabama, Etowah in Georgia, and Spiro
west. Devoted to hunting, the nomads did not cultivate
in Oklahoma.
crops. By the fifteenth century, most of these nomads
were Athapaskan speakers. Their enemies called them
Early Peoples of the Great Plains Between the Apaches.
Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River, the Great
Some nomad bands established economic ties with
Plains is an immense, windy, and arid grassland in
the villagers of the valleys. The nomads traded bison
the heart of North America. The Great Plains receive
meat and hides for maize, beans, squash, turquoise,
only between 12 and 20 inches of rain a year. Only
pottery, and cotton blankets. The villagers would forgo
a few major rivers flow year-round. Instead of trees,
this trade, however, when they lacked surplus food.
drought-resistant grasses cover the land. Thus, grazing
Angered, the nomads raided the villages.
animals, especially the bison, favor the Great Plains.
America’s Cultural Roots 7 1.1 The Peoples of the Americas
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Eastern Woodlands Peoples The eastern region Using similar materials, the Iroquois built larger
featured a vast forest atop rolling hills and a low range multifamily longhouses, some more than 200 feet in
of mountains, the Appalachians. Many streams, rivers, length.
and lakes drained this wooded land. Five Iroquois peoples—the Mohawks, Oneidas,
Stretching from eastern Texas to the Atlantic Onondagas, Cayugas,and Senecas—united to form a
Ocean, the Southeast has mild winters and warm loose confederation, known as the Iroquois League.
summers with plenty of rainfall. The Cherokees The Iroquois League was not a European-style nation.
were the largest group in the Southeast. They lived Lacking central authority, it was mainly a ritual forum
in present-day western North Carolina and eastern for promoting peaceful cooperation among the member
Tennessee. Other people in the Southeast included nations.
Choctaws, Chickasaws, Natchez, and Creeks. Because The Iroquois League’s guiding law was a
of the long growing season, the Choctaws, the Creeks, constitution, which was passed down by oral tradition.
and other southeastern groups were primarily farmers,
but they also depended on hunting and fishing. They The Lords of the Confederacy of the
knew what plants to use to make rope, medicine, and
Five nations shall be mentors of the
clothing. Their main crops were corn, beans, squashes,
people for all time. . . . Their hearts
and pumpkins.
shall be full of peace and good will
Northeastern people developed into two major
language groups: the Algonquians and the Iroquoians. and their minds filled with a yearning
The Algonquins occupied the Atlantic seaboard from
for the welfare of the people of the
present-day Virginia north to the mouth of the St.
Confederacy.
Lawrence River. The Iroquois lived around Lake Ontario
and Lake Erie and along the upper St. Lawrence River. —The Iroquois Constitution
A chief difference between the two cultures lay
in their housing. Algonquins lived in wigwams: oval
Shared Cultural Characteristics Despite their
frames between 10 and 16 feet in diameter that are
cultural diversity, most American Indian groups shared
made of saplings covered with bark sheets or woven
several cultural features. For example, most American
mats.
Purpose was to
preserve peace between
member nations and
protect areas of settlement
from outsiders
Initially, the league
Individual
included five nations
groups maintained The Iroquois
(Mohawks, Oneidas,
their political sovereignty
League Onondagas, Cayugas, and
and own foreign
Senecas); Tuscarora group
policies.
added in 1722.
A Great Council
helped resolve differences
among groups and maintain
peace with outsiders, but
had no official political
control over members.
SOURCES: Encyclopædia Britannica; National Park Service; New York State Museum; University of Maryland, Baltimore County
>> Analyze Information What Iroquois League political ideals unified the
confederation?
America’s Cultural Roots 8 1.1 The Peoples of the Americas
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Indians did not set up centralized nations like those
in Europe. Instead, political power was spread among
many local chiefs with limited authority.
American Indians believed that spirits could be
found in every plant, animal, rock, cloud, and body of
water. If properly honored, the spirits could help people
catch or grow what they needed. If offended, spirits
might hide the animals or fish or destroy the corn crop.
The spiritual leaders, known as shamans, mediated
between their people and the spirit beings. They
conducted rituals to promote hunts, secure crops, and
protect warriors.
American Indians owned little private property.
Some families owned garden plots and hunting
territories, but they could not sell them. Most local land
was considered a common resource for every resident
to use.
There was a respectful equality among the various
groups of American Indians. Usually, work was divided
along gender lines. Men assumed more dangerous
tasks, such as hunting and warfare. Women cared for
the children, wove baskets, made pottery, prepared
meals, and gathered food. If their people cultivated >> American Indian shamans, like this Hupa woman
photographed in the 1920s, served their people’s
crops, that work also usually fell to women.
spiritual needs.
Map
CHECK UNDERSTANDING What were three
common cultural characteristics shared by most
American Indians?
3. Compare How did the early people of the
Southwest differ from those of the Mississippi
region?
ASSESSMENT
4. Summarize What type of government did the
1. Analyze Information What theories do scholars
Iroquois League have?
have about when and why the earliest inhabitants
of North and South America first arrived? 5. Categorize Which cultural features did most
American Indian groups share?
2. Apply Concepts How did climate change affect
the Paleo-Indians of North and South America?
America’s Cultural Roots 9 1.1 The Peoples of the Americas
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1.2
The people and cultures of West
Africa in the 1500s, like the region
in which they lived, were incredibly
diverse. Valuable natural resources
and several key rivers encouraged
West African kingdoms to develop
prosperous trade networks that fueled
growth.
>> Mali ruler Mansa Musa led a West African
kingdom of immense wealth and power.
Flipped Video
The West Africans
>> Objectives
Describe the development and cultural
characteristics of West Africa in the fifteenth
century.
Summarize West African religions, culture, The Kingdoms of West Africa
and society.
Explore the roots of the system of slavery
practiced in the Americas. The Relationship Between Geography and Trade Western
Africa is a varied land. An enormous desert—the Sahara—dominates
>> Key Terms the northern part. To the south of the Sahara lies a broad grassland,
or savanna. South of this savanna is a lush region that is well watered
Ghana
Mali by several major rivers, including the Niger and the Senegal. The
Mansa Musa West African landscape abounds with valuable natural resources—in
Songhai
particular, salt, found in the Sahara, and gold, located in the valleys
along the Atlantic coast.
Hundreds of years ago, these resources provided for a thriving trade
network among the people of West Africa. This trade revolved around
certain trading towns that grew into great and powerful empires. The
trading empires of West Africa commanded trading routes that linked
the region with North Africa, the Mediterranean, and Asia. Trade
promoted rich and thriving cultures.
Ghana Between A.D. 300 and 1500, three kingdoms rose and fell in
West Africa. The earliest kingdom, Ghana, expanded from the Sahara
to the Gulf of Guinea and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Niger River.
Ghana rose to prominence around A.D. 800.
A thriving caravan trade with African peoples across the Sahara
to Morocco resulted in extensive Muslim influence in North Africa. By
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the eleventh century, Ghana supplied much of the gold as Mali. The most famous ruler of Mali was a king
for the Mediterranean region. The ancient kingdom had named Mansa Musa.
large towns, beautifully designed buildings, a system During his reign in the early 1300s, he expanded
of commerce, and a complex political structure. Mali’s domain westward to the Atlantic coast and
Foreign travelers recorded their accounts of Ghana’s increased the role of Islam, a religious faith that spread
prominence, including the lavish lifestyle of Ghana’s slowly through North Africa in the early 700s, when
king in the eleventh century. the region was under Muslim conquest. His promotion
of Islamic scholarship helped lead to the founding of
The King adorns himself . . . wearing the famous university at Timbuktu. This great center
necklaces around his neck and of learning and culture was known throughout the
Islamic world. The kingdom of Mali weakened after the
bracelets on his forearms, and he puts
death of Mansa Musa in 1332.
on a high cap decorated with gold and
wrapped in a turban of fine cotton. The Rise of Songhai By the 1400s, another empire
He sits in audience to hear grievances emerged: Songhai. The Songhai capital, Gao, grew
rich as a trading center, Under the rule of Askia
against officials in a domed pavilion
Muhammad, Songhai sustained an Islamic system of
around which stand ten horses covered education based in the city of Timbuktu. Like Ghana
with gold-embroidered materials. and Mali, Songhai grew rich from trade. In 1468,
Songhai’s armies conquered Mali and its capital. As a
— Al-Bakri, The Book of Routes and Realms
result, Songhai became the most powerful and largest
kingdom in West Africa. Eventually, however, poor
Mali Emerges Attacks from the Almoravids, an leadership resulted in the loss of Gao and the rest of
alliance of peoples from the Sahara, eventually the empire.
weakened Ghana’s control of West African trade.
The kingdom’s power faded until, finally, Ghana was Additional Kingdoms In addition to the great
supplanted around A.D. 1200 by a new kingdom known empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, West Africa also
hosted smaller kingdoms. For example, to the south of
West African Trade Routes
N Venice
Genoa
W E
PORTUGAL SPAIN
S
AlgiersTunis
Mediterranean Sea
Fez
Marrakech Tripoli
Cairo
ATLANTIC Taghaza
OCEAN
S a h a r a Nile R.
Timbuktu
SenegaKl RSu.amlebhi Gao Kano Lake KEY
Niger R. Chad Ghana, A.D. 800–A.D. 1050
Nok
Ife Mali, A.D. 1200–A.D. 1450
0 1,000 mi Benin City Songhai, A.D. 1460–A.D. 1600
0 1,000 km Major trade route
Miller Cylindrical Gulf of Guinea Portuguese trading post
Projection
City

>> Analyze Maps Why was the location of West Africa so important to its role in
Gallery
international trade?
America’s Cultural Roots 11 1.2 The West Africans
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