Unfinished Democracy. Women in Nordic Politics

218 Pages·1985·3.21 MB·English

by  E. Haavio-Mannila and T. Skard (Eds.)

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WOMEN'S STUDIES INTERNATIONAL FORUM
A multidisciplinary journal for the rapid publication of research communications
and review articles in Women's Studies
Editor: Dale Spender
UNFINISHED
DEMOCRACY
Women in Nordic Politics
Edited by
Elina Haavio-Mannila, Drude Dahlerup, Maud Eduards, Esther
Gudmundsdottir, Beatrice Halsaa, Helga Maria Hemes, Eva Hänninen-
Salmelin, Bergthora Sigmundsdottir, Sirkka Sinkkonen and Torild Skard
Translated by
Christine Badcock
PERGAMON PRESS
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Copyright © 1985 Pergamon Press Ltd.
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
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First edition 1985
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Unfinished democracy.
Translation of: Det uferdige demokratiet.
Bibliography: p.
1. Women in politics—Scandinavia—Addresses, essays, lectures.
2. Women in politics—Finland—Addresses, essays, lectures.
I. Haavio-Mannila, Elina. II. Title.
HQ1236.5.S34U3513 1985 320'.088042 85-511
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Unfinished democracy: women in Nordic politics.
1. Women in pontics—Scandinavia
I. Haavio—Mannila, Elina II. Badcock, Christine
III. Det Uferidge demokratiet. English
323.3'4Ό948 HQ1236.5.S/
ISBN 0-08-031811-8
Previously published as Det uferdige demokratiet
© Nordisk Ministerrâd, Oslo, 1983
This English edition has been published with the assistance of a
subsidy from UNESCO.
Printed in Great Britain by A. Wheaton & Co. Ltd., Exeter
The Authors
DAHLERUP, Drude, b. 1945. M.A. (Political Science). Temporary Lecturer,
Institute of Political Science, University of Aarhus, Denmark. Author of books
including: Socialism and Women's Liberation in the 19th Century (Aarhus,
1973), Working Women in every Country ...a Clara Zetkin Anthology
(Copenhagen, 1974) and Women on the Move—Women at Work and in
Associations at the Turn of the Century (Copenhagen, 1982) and of several
articles on the women's movement, the organization of women in political
parties and women's representation. A member of the Red Stocking
movement.
EDUARDS, Maud, b. 1944. M.A. Institute of Political Science, University of
Stockholm, Sweden. Author of the following books: Petita—how Swedish
Authorities argue for Higher Subsidies (Stockholm, 1975), Women and
Politics—Facts and Explanations (Stockholm, 1977), Women's Representation
and Women's Power (Stockholm, 1980) and Gender, Power and Citizenship
(Stockholm, 1983). Has also written articles on women and politics and is a
member of the Swedish Women's Left Federation.
GUDMUNDSDOTTIR, Esther, b. 1948. Graduate in sociology, sociologist at
the Equal Status Council, Reykjavik, Iceland. Author of Women's Year
Committee Report (Reykjavik, 1977). President of the Icelandic Women's
Rights Association and is active in the Independence Party.
GULLI, Brita, b. 1948. M.A. (Political Science). Lecturer of Women's Research,
Rogaland Regional College, Norway. Publications include Research about
Women (Oslo, 1982) and Women's Sexuality (Oslo, 1983), as well as articles on
feminism and Marxism and organizing for liberation. A member of the women's
movement.
HAATAJA, Anita, b. 1949. M.A. Planner, Council for Equality, Helsinki,
Finland. Has published several papers on sexual equality at municipal level
and is active in the Social Democratic League of Women.
HAAVIO-MANNILA, Elina, b. 1933. Ph.D. (Political Science). Associate
Professor of Sociology, University of Helsinki, Finland. Author of numerous
books, including: Village Fights (Helsinki, 1958), Finnish Men and Women
(Helsinki, 1968), Mental Health of Immigrants in Sweden, (1977), Afternoon
Dances (Helsinki, 1980) and Family, Work and Emotions (Helsinki, 1984), as
well as a number of articles on a variety of subjects, such as sex roles in politics
vi The Authors
and the position of women in a comparative perspective. Has sat on
government committees on marriage law, working time and problems of
women researchers. Formerly Vice-President of the Westermarck Society.
HALSAA, Beatrice, b. 1947. M.A. (Political Science). Lecturer, Oppland
Regional College, Norway. Has published Women and Political Participation
(Oslo, 1977) and Committees Under Fire (Lillehammer, 1983) and articles on
the patriarchy and women and power. A member of a number of women's
organizations.
HEDLUND-RUTH, Gun, b. 1951 M.A. Research Assistant, Institute of
Political Science, University of Uppsala, and Örebro High School. Has
published articles on "Child care, six hour working day and female
representation in parliament" and "The impact of the women's movement on
politics". An active member of the women's movement.
HERNES, Helga Maria, b. 1938. Ph.D. Research Director, Institute for Social
Research, Oslo, Norway. Published books include Concepts of Community in
Modern Theories of International Law (1970), The Multinational Corporation
(1977) and The State: No Entry for Women? (Oslo, 1982). Has contributed to
several international journals. A member of the Norwegian women's rights
organization.
HUSU, Liisa, b. 1953. M.A. (Political Science). Research Coordinator,
Council for Equality, Helsinki, Finland. Co-editor of a news magazine about
women's research and sociology, and contributor to Nordic cooperation on
women's research.
HÄNNINEN-SALMELIN, Eva, b. 1947. M.A. (Political Science) and B.A.
Researcher at University of Tammerfors, Finland. Publications include
several papers and articles on a variety of subjects, including women in
government services.
HÖGBERG, Christina, b. 1948. M.A. Teacher at Falu High School, Sweden.
Has written about activities of women in parliament.
JENSEN, Torben. M.A. (Political Science). Institute of Political Science,
University of Aarhus, Denmark.
SCHIVE, Janneke van der Ros, b. 1947. M.A. (Political Science). Research
scholar, Institute of Political Science, University of Oslo, Norway. Author of
articles on women's representation in local councils, studies of women in
political elites and the impact of the new women's liberation movement on
politics.
SIGMUNDSDOTTIR, Bergthora, b. 1950. Graduate in sociology. Former
managing director, Equal Status Council, Reykjavik, Iceland, now a student of
law. Has participated in international work for women, including The
The Authors vii
Committee of Experts on Sex Discrimination of the Council of Europe and the
UN Women's Conference in Copenhagen, 1980.
SINKKONEN, Sirkka, b. 1938. Ph.D. Professor of Health and Nursing
Administration, University of Kuopio, Finland. Author of Marital Happiness
in the Modern and Traditional Marriage (Kuopio, 1975), Nursing Science
(Kuopio, 1983) and articles on the organization of the health services, political
science and public administration, women and politics. Has participated in
international work through the World Health Organization and the Executive
Council of the International Political Association.
SKARD, Torild, b. 1936. B.A. and M.Ed. Formerly senior researcher at the
Institute of Work Psychology, Oslo, Norway; presently Coordinator of
UNESCO's activities concerning women. Author of a number of books,
including: Workshop for Self confidence—Youth Clubs in Oslo (Oslo, 1973), Half
of the Earth—Introduction to Women's Politics (Oslo, 1977), Chosen for
Parliament (Oslo, 1980) and Everyday Life in Parliament (Oslo, 1981 ), as well as
numerous articles on a variety of subjects. Formerly MP and President of the
Norwegian Senate. Active in the women's movement and the Socialist Left
Party.
SKJEIE, Hege, b. 1955. M.A. (Political Science). Adviser, Women's Research
Secretariat at the Norwegian Scientific Research Council, Oslo, Norway. Has
written generally about equality and in particular about equality legislation,
and has worked on the Norwegian Equal Status Council.
WAMBERG, Ulla, b. 1946. M.A. Teacher at Vejle Business School, Denmark.
Author of studies of women's participation in local and county councils.
WIDERBERG, Karin, b. 1949. Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, Institute of Sociological
Jurisprudence, University of Oslo, Norway, Author of Women, Class and the
Law 11'50-1980 (Stockholm, 1980) and Law and Social Structure (Stockholm,
1980) as well as articles on patriarchy, feminism and Marxism. Formerly co-
publisher of Women's Scientific Journal in Sweden.
Preface
Unfinished Democracy—Women in Nordic Politics grew out of a
collaboration between Nordic researchers into women's issues which started
with the "Women in Politics" working group at the meetings of the European
Consortium for Political Research in Berlin in 1977. Since then we have
gathered on innumerable occasions at international, Nordic and national
meetings, quite apart from all our personal contacts with each other in smaller
groups.
The authors of this volume are mostly academics and researchers, but many
of us have also taken an active part in political decision-making in parliament,
local councils, political parties and women's organizations. These experiences
have also provided us with an insight into the formal and informal mechanisms
which are the reason for the unfinished state of Nordic democracy.
The production of the book has necessitated numerous meetings, telephone
conversations and letters between the twenty or so contributors to the project.
The Nordic Council of Ministers has made available to us financial support for
many of our meetings in 1982-83 and we also wish to thank the Council of
Ministers for its help with the cost of printing the book, and for secretarial
assistance. Research secretary for the group was Eva Hänninen-Salmelin.
Further, we express our thanks to United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization, UNESCO, for financial assistance to publish the book
in English.
This joint comparative research by a large group of scholars with varying
degrees of experience, differing theoretical starting points and styles of writing
has been a demanding and stimulating project. We hope that we have been
able to combine in a productive manner the concept system used in political
science and political sociology with the problem formulations of equality and
feminist women's research.
I should like to make a personal warm vote of thanks to the editorial group
and to all my colleagues for their patience, tenacity and enthusiasm during the
hard work involved with this collaboration.
We hope that this book enables us to communicate something of
importance to the many women who are already working in politics at different
levels. Our message is : don't lose heart—continue to strive in conjunction with
men to expand and develop democracy in the world.
Helsinki, January 1985
ELINA HAAVIO-MANNILA
UI>-A* ix
Introduction
By Beatrice Halsaa, Helga Maria Hemes and Sirkka
Sinkkonen
Universal suffrage has not provided women with political power on an equal
footing with men. Far from it—the alienation of women from politics and
women's lack of power within the political system have remained fundamental
weaknesses of the Nordic democracies. In formal terms women have had the
same rights as men for many decades, but this has not led to the radical changes
in predominant ideologies and social structures which are necessary in order to
give substance and cogency to the right of women to participate. This
divergence between political ideals and realities is a problem with ethical as well
as power-political dimensions.
This book is the first product of collaboration between Nordic women
scholars studying political problems and issues. As researchers into women's
issues we are concerned with the different forms of gender-based injustice and
inequality. As social scientists we address ourselves to the distribution of
values and advantages which occurs via the political system, and in both cases
our attention is focused on the question of power and the just allocation ofthat
power. The women's perspective causes us to pose age-old questions once
more—for example: What is politics? Where do the dividing lines lie between
the public, private and personal? Who is political "man"? This book deals
with three key issues: the political objectives of women's organizations;
women's representation in parliamentary, local and corporate decision-
making bodies; and the advance of equal rights policies. One of the main
themes of the book is the special nature of women's representative base. The
chapter on women's organizations converges on the specific needs of women,
and the organizational expression of those needs. The chapter which deals
with equal rights policies discusses the ways in which these needs have been
met by the state.
The original motivation behind this volume was to present existing national
research into women in politics, but this aim was soon set aside in favour of a
wish to compare phenomena and systems in the five Nordic countries. This led
us to assemble new data and adopt new methods of cooperation in order to
draw meaningful parallels. In the course of this process we have gained fresh
insight into, and even more respect for, the similarities and differences between
XV
xvi Beatrice Halsaa, Helga Maria Hemes and Sirkka Sinkkonen
our countries, especially with regard to the political power of women. The
thought has occurred to us that cross-national comparisons are more
problematic when the analysis concerns women. Existing models of
comparison of political systems do not address themselves to the interplay
between those specific factors which determine women's lives. In addition,
women's political interests are not institutionalized or protected by strong
organizations. Analyses of societies' power structures from a women's
perspective would therefore be necessary to acquire a deeper understanding of
the gender hierarchy of politics. So it is no surprise that the very concept of
politics : "What is politics?" and "Where are the arenas of political conflict?" is
central to research into women in politics. In many ways the concept of politics
as defined by political science is too restrictive. "Political science is reinforcing
the invisibility of women by keeping the domestic sphere apolitical and at the
same time neglecting to see as a problem the absence of women in the world
outside the home. Thus, the field of political science reaffirms the status quo
and women continue to be invisible. Furthermore, theories about women have
little developmental potential as long as our situation is not regarded as a
problem. The gender gap in public life is able to remain a part of our everyday
impression of what is given, inevitable and even, perhaps, necessary" (Halsaa
Albrektsen, 1977: 51).
However, such in-depth studies lie in the future. This book represents a first
step and, with a few exceptions, is limited to political representation and
activities of women in traditionally recognized political arenas. It should be
stated at the outset that it does not take up many crucial aspects of women's
political power. This applies specifically to the trade union movement, which
holds such a key position in Nordic politics and to a lesser extent to the
activities of women in political parties. In addition, there is no impact analysis
of national policies as they affect and influence women, with the possible
exception of Chapter 7, which deals with equal rights policies. Finally, there is
only limited coverage of the political system interpreted through the eyes of
politically active women, or of the way in which such women view their
participation at various levels of the political system, from joining in protest
actions to representation on the most influential decision-making bodies. The
studies available are not comparative in scope.
There is a large body of evidence which suggests that the political system is
experienced differently by women and men, but we have only sparse
knowledge of this issue at present. Not until we have that information can we
study the Nordic welfare states from a women's perspective. It seems clear that
the type of state which operates in the Nordic countries has helped to widen
the actual definition of politics and that the division between the public and the
private is in constant flux. Much of the traditional dividing line between what
is "public", "private" and "personal" has been eradicated, partly because of
state intervention and legislation. The development of the Nordic welfare
Introduction xvii
states is largely concerned with moving boundaries. The balance between the
public, private and personal has been sufficiently upset for a reappraisal to be
called for, especially as this issue lies at the heart of an understanding of
women's lack of political power and of the rise of the women's movements of
the 1970s.
This book seeks to demonstrate some (although far from all) potential links
between women's participation in decision-making bodies and a public policy
which is compatible with women's interests. Chapter 7, which deals with equal
rights policies, can serve as an example of the fact that reforms in public
policies which have particular relevance for women are a product of overall
political movements, greater pressure from women's organizations and the
expanding representation of women in decision-making bodies.
The entry of women into public life as it is described in this volume—
their transition from a state of powerlessness with no participation or
representation whatsoever, to relative lack of power despite participation—is
an exciting process. The next stage—the road to political power by way of
participation and representation—appears to lie in the distant future.
All research into the role of women in politics will in the foreseeable future
inevitably remain research into the absence of women's power or, at any rate,
their lack of influence. Given that the transition from powerlessness to the
ability to exercise power would entail fundamental changes in women's lives
and in our political systems, it is perhaps appropriate to pass comment on the
relationship between women and power.
For many of us politics is synonymous with power and the exercise of power.
Power is not necessarily a negative concept. We draw a distinction between the
legitimate exercise of power—working at one with the interests and wishes of
the people—and illegitimate power—the abuse of the people's trust or
resources. In view of the fact that not all of us are able to take frequent or active
part in political life, it is essential that our representatives fulfil two
requirements: they must be aware of our interests and be worthy of our trust;
for it is they who act on our behalf. The legitimacy of power is important from
women's point of view because it is related to questions such as who should
represent women and what should be represented. Until now the machinery of
state has stood further from women than from men. Many interests crucial to
women have either not been on the political agenda at all or, when they have
been, women have been denied access to and influence over the decisions
which affected them.
What does this mean theoretically and in practical politics? Using theories
as a means of analysing women and power, the most pertinent question is: Is it
more useful to use as a basis women's "powerlessness" or the fact that women
have "little power"? These are two divergent starting points. Most power
theories do not reflect much of women's social reality, because they are based
on articulated and explicit conflicts and interests, although the foundation of