Understanding psychology

617 Pages·37.537 MB·English

by  Morris, Charles G;Maisto, Albert A

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i Understanding Psychology
o
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Charles G. Morris Albert A. Maisto
Tenth Edition
ISBN 978-1-29203-930-5
9 781292 039305
Pearson New International Edition

Understanding Psychology

Charles G. Morris Albert A. Maisto
Tenth Edition
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
1. Glossary
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 1
2. The Science of Psychology
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 15
3. The Biological Basis of Behavior
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 55
4. Sensation and Perception
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 97
5. States of Consciousness
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 137
6. Learning
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 173
7. Memory
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 207
8. Cognition and Mental Abilities
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 241
9. Motivation and Emotion
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 285
10. Life-Span Development
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 321
11. Personality
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 363
12. Stress and Health Psychology
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 395
13. Psychological Disorders
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 425
I
445556923815795
14. Therapies
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 461
15. Social Psychology 
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 495
16. Appendix: Measurement and Statistical Methods
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 527
17. References
Charles G. Morris/Albert A. Maisto 539
Index 585
II
Glossary
Absolute threshold Th e least amount of energy that can be detected as a Anorexia nervosa A serious eating disorder that is associated with an
stimulation 50% of the time. intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image.
Achievement motive Th e need to excel, to overcome obstacles. Antipsychotic drugs D rugs used to treat very severe psychological disor-
Actualizing tendency A ccording to Rogers, the drive of every organism to ders, particularly schizophrenia.
fulfi ll its biological potential and become what it is inherently capable Antisocial personality disorder P ersonality disorder that involves a pat-
of becoming. tern of violent, criminal, or unethical and exploitative behavior and an
Adaptation A n adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they inability to feel aff ection for others.
are receiving. Anxiety disorders D isorders in which anxiety is a characteristic feature or
Additive color mixing Th e process of mixing lights of diff erent wave- the avoidance of anxiety seems to motivate abnormal behavior.
lengths to create new hues. Aphasias I mpairments of the ability to use (expressive aphasia) or under-
Adjustment A ny eff ort to cope with stress. stand (receptive aphasia) language that usually results from brain damage.
Adoption studies R esearch carried out on children adopted at birth Apnea S leep disorder characterized by breathing diffi culty during the
by parents not related to them, to determine the relative infl uence of night and feelings of exhaustion during the day.
heredity and environment on human behavior. Approach/approach confl ict According to Lewin, the result of simultane-
Adrenal glands T wo endocrine glands located just above the kidneys. ous attraction to two appealing possibilities, neither of which has any
Aerial perspective M onocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact negative qualities.
that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred. Approach/avoidance confl ict A ccording to Lewin, the result of being
Aff erent neurons N eurons that carry messages from sense organs to the simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same goal.
spinal cord or brain. Archetypes In Jung’s theory of personality, thought forms common to all
Affi liation motive Th e need to be with others. human beings, stored in the collective unconscious.
Afterimage S ense experience that occurs aft er a visual stimulus has been Arousal theory Th eory of motivation that proposes that organisms seek
removed. an optimal level of arousal.
Aggression Behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also, the motive to Assessment center Method used to select high-level managers that places
behave aggressively. applicants in a simulated and highly structured group setting where
Agoraphobia A n anxiety disorder that involves multiple, intense fears of they are given personnel tests and extensive interviews, and they engage
crowds, public places, and other situations that require separation from in various role-playing activities.
a source of security such as the home. Association areas A reas of the cerebral cortex where incoming messages
Alcohol D epressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in whiskey, beer, from the separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions
wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors. and outgoing messages from the motor areas are integrated.
Alcoholic myopia A condition resulting from alcohol consumption Attachment E motional bond that develops in the fi rst year of life that
involving poor judgments arising from misdirected attention and fail- makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort.
ure to consider negative consequences. Attention Th e selection of some incoming information for further
Algorithm A step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a processing.
correct solution. Attention-defi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A childhood disorder
All-or-none law P rinciple that the action potential in a neuron does not characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity.
vary in strength; either the neuron fi res at full strength, or it does not Attitude R elatively stable organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavior
fi re at all. tendencies directed toward something or someone—the attitude object.
Altered states of consciousness M ental states that diff er noticeably from Attribution theory Th e theory that addresses the question of how people
normal waking consciousness. make judgments about the causes of behavior.
Altruistic behavior H elping behavior that is not linked to personal gain. Auditory nerve Th e bundle of axons that carries signals from each ear to
Alzheimer’s disease A neurological disorder, most commonly found in the brain.
late adulthood, characterized by progressive losses in memory and cog- Authoritarian personality A personality pattern characterized by rigid
nition and by changes in personality. conventionality, exaggerated respect for authority, and hostility toward
Amphetamines S timulant drugs that initially produce “rushes” of euphoria those who defy society’s norms.
oft en followed by sudden “crashes” and, sometimes, severe depression. Autistic disorder A childhood disorder characterized by lack of social
Amplitude Th e magnitude of a wave; in sound, the primary determinant instincts and strange motor behavior.
of loudness. Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) A range of disorders involving varying
Amygdala A limbic system structure involved in governing emotions and degrees of impairment in communication skills, social interactions, and
establishing emotional memories. restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior.
Anal stage S econd stage in Freud’s theory of personality development, Autokinetic illusion Th e perception that a stationary object is actually
in which a child’s erotic feelings center on the anus and on elimination. moving.
From Understanding Psychology, Tenth Edition. Charles G. Morris, Albert A. Maisto. Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights
reserved.
1
Glossary
Autonomic nervous system Th e part of the peripheral nervous system that Bipolar cells N eurons that have only one axon and one dendrite; in the eye,
carries messages between the central nervous system and the internal these neurons connect the receptors on the retina to the ganglion cells.
organs. Bipolar disorder A mood disorder in which periods of mania and depres-
Autonomy S ense of independence; a desire not to be controlled by others. sion alternate, sometimes with periods of normal mood intervening.
Availability A heuristic by which a judgment or decision is based on Blind spot Th e place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion
information that is most easily retrieved from memory. cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors.
Aversive conditioning B ehavioral therapy techniques aimed at eliminat- Blocking A process whereby prior conditioning prevents condition-
ing undesirable behavior patterns by teaching the person to associate ing to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented
them with pain and discomfort. simultaneously.
Avoidance training L earning a desirable behavior to prevent the occur- Body dysmorphic disorder A somatoform disorder in which a person
rence of something unpleasant, such as punishment. becomes so preoccupied with his or her imagined ugliness that normal
Avoidance/avoidance confl ict A ccording to Lewin, the result of facing a life is impossible.
choice between two undesirable possibilities, neither of which has any Borderline personality disorder P ersonality disorder characterized by
positive qualities. marked instability in self-image, mood, and interpersonal relationships.
Avoidant personality disorder P ersonality disorder in which the person’s Brainstorming A problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a
fears of rejection by others lead to social isolation. group produces numerous ideas and evaluates them only aft er all ideas
Axon S ingle long fi ber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing have been collected.
messages. Brightness Th e nearness of a color to white as opposed to black.
B abbling A baby’s vocalizations, consisting of repetition of consonant– B rightness constancy Th e perception of brightness as the same, even
vowel combinations. though the amount of light reaching the retina changes.
B arbiturates Potentially deadly depressants, fi rst used for their sedative Bulimia nervosa A n eating disorder characterized by binges of eating fol-
and anticonvulsant properties, now used only to treat such conditions lowed by self-induced vomiting.
as epilepsy and arthritis. Bystander eff ect Th e tendency for an individual’s helpfulness in an emer-
Basilar membrane Vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it gency to decrease as the number of passive bystanders increases.
contains sense receptors for sound. Cannon–Bard theory States that the experience of emotion occurs simul-
Behavior contracting F orm of operant conditioning therapy in which the taneously with biological changes.
client and therapist set behavioral goals and agree on reinforcements Case study I ntensive description and analysis of a single individual or just
that the client will receive on reaching those goals. a few individuals.
Behavior genetics Study of the relationship between heredity and behavior. Catatonic schizophrenia S chizophrenic disorder in which disturbed
B ehavior therapies Th erapeutic approaches that are based on the belief motor behavior is prominent.
that all behavior, normal and abnormal, is learned, and that the objec- Central nervous system (CNS) D ivision of the nervous system that consists
tive of therapy is to teach people new, more satisfying ways of behaving. of the brain and spinal cord.
Behaviorally anchored ratings scale (BARS) P erformance appraisal that Central tendency T endency of scores to congregate around some middle
matches employee behavior to specifi c behaviors associated with high, value.
average, and poor performance. Cerebellum S tructure in the hindbrain that controls certain refl exes and
Behaviorism School of psychology that studies only observable and coordinates the body’s movements.
measurable behavior. Cerebrum Th e main portion of the brain, occupying the upper part of the
Big Five F ive traits or basic dimensions currently considered to be of cen- cranial cavity.
tral importance in describing personality. Cerebral cortex Th e outer surface of the two cerebral hemispheres that
Binaural cues C ues to sound location that involve both ears working regulates most complex behavior.
together. Childhood amnesia Th e diffi culty adults have remembering experiences
Binocular cues V isual cues requiring the use of both eyes. from their fi rst two years of life.
Biofeedback A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide precise Chromosomes P airs of threadlike bodies within the cell nucleus that con-
information about internal physiological processes, such as heart rate tain the genes.
or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these C hunking Th e grouping of information into meaningful units for easier
functions. handling by short-term memory.
Biographical (or retrospective) study A method of studying developmen- Circadian rhythm A regular biological rhythm with a period of approxi-
tal changes by reconstructing a person’s past through interviews and mately 24 hours.
inferring the eff ects of past events on current behaviors. Civil Rights Act of 1964 A sweeping set of laws and regulations aimed at
Biological model V iew that psychological disorders have a biochemical protecting the rights of people despite their gender, age, race, or reli-
or physiological basis. gious beliefs.
Biological treatments A group of approaches, including medication, Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning Th e type of learning in which a
electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery, that are sometimes used response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a
to treat psychological disorders in conjunction with, or instead of, diff erent, formerly neutral, stimulus.
psychotherapy. Client-centered (or person-centered) therapy Nondirectional form of
Biopsychosocial theory Th e theory that the interaction of biological, psy- therapy developed by Carl Rogers that calls for unconditional positive
chological, and cultural factors infl uences the intensity and duration regard of the client by the therapist with the goal of helping the client
of pain. become fully functioning.
2
Glossary
Cliques G roups of adolescents with similar interests and strong mutual Cones R eceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision.
attachment. Confi rmation bias Th e tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief
Cocaine D rug derived from the coca plant that, although producing a and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.
sense of euphoria by stimulating the sympathetic nervous system, also Confl ict S imultaneous existence of incompatible demands, opportuni-
leads to anxiety, depression, and addictive cravings. ties, needs, or goals.
Cochlea P art of the inner ear containing fl uid that vibrates, which in turn Conformity V oluntarily yielding to social norms, even at the expense of
causes the basilar membrane to vibrate. one’s preferences.
Cognition Th e processes whereby we acquire and use knowledge. Confrontation A cknowledging a stressful situation directly and attempt-
Cognitive dissonance P erceived inconsistency between two cognitions. ing to fi nd a solution to the problem or to attain the diffi cult goal.
Cognitive distortions A n illogical and maladaptive response to early neg- Conscientiousness A person’s ability to fi nish projects that are started, to
ative life events that leads to feelings of incompetence and unworthiness attend to detail without becoming absorbed by it, and to care enough
that are reactivated whenever a new situation arises that resembles the about the quality of work that it is not compromised by inattention or
original events. lack of eff ort.
Cognitive learning L earning that depends on mental processes that are Consciousness O ur awareness of various cognitive processes, such as
not directly observable. sleeping, dreaming, concentrating, and making decisions.
Cognitive map A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may Content validity R efers to a test’s having an adequate sample of questions
be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change. measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure.
Cognitive psychology S chool of psychology devoted to the study of men- Contingency A reliable “if–then” relationship between two events, such
tal processes in the broadest sense. as a CS and a US.
Cognitive theory S tates that emotional experience depends on one’s per- Control group In a controlled experiment, the group not subjected to
ception or judgment of a situation. a change in the independent variable; used for comparison with the
Cognitive therapies P sychotherapies that emphasize changing clients’ experimental group.
perceptions of their life situation as a way of modifying their behavior. Convergence A visual depth cue that comes from muscles controlling eye
Cognitive therapy Th erapy that depends on identifying and changing movement as the eyes turn inward to view a nearby stimulus.
inappropriately negative and self-critical patterns of thought. Convergent thinking Th inking that is directed toward one correct solu-
Cognitive–behavioral model V iew that psychological disorders result tion to a problem.
from learning maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving. Conversion disorders S omatoform disorders in which a dramatic specifi c
Cognitive–social learning theories P ersonality theories that view behavior disability has no physical cause but instead seems related to psychologi-
as the product of the interaction of cognitions, learning and past experi- cal problems.
ences, and the immediate environment. Cornea Th e transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye.
Cohort A group of people born during the same period in historical time. Corporate (organizational) culture Th e formal and informal rules, pro-
Collective unconscious I n Jung’s theory of personality, the level of the cedures, and expectations that defi ne the values, attitudes, beliefs, and
unconscious that is inherited and common to all members of a species. customs of an organization.
Color constancy A n inclination to perceive familiar objects as retaining Corpus callosum A thick band of nerve fi bers connecting the left and
their color despite changes in sensory information. right cerebral hemispheres.
Compensation A ccording to Adler, the person’s eff ort to overcome imag- Correlation coeffi cient S tatistical measure of the strength of association
ined or real personal weaknesses. between two variables.
Compensatory model A rational decision-making model in which choices Correlation coeffi cients S tatistical measures of the degree of association
are systematically evaluated on various criteria. between two variables.
Compliance C hange of behavior in response to an explicit request from Correlational research R esearch technique based on the naturally occur-
another person or group. ring relationship between two or more variables.
Compromise D eciding on a more realistic solution or goal when an ideal Counterfactual thinking Th inking about alternative realities and things
solution or goal is not practical. that never happened.
Concepts M ental categories for classifying objects, people, or experiences. Couple therapy A form of group therapy intended to help troubled part-
ners improve their problems of communication and interaction.
Concrete-operational stage I n Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive
development between 7 and 11 years of age in which the individual can Creativity Th e ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects.
attend to more than one thing at a time and understand someone else’s Criterion-related validity V alidity of a test as measured by a comparison
point of view, though thinking is limited to concrete matters. of the test score and independent measures of what the test is designed
Conditional positive regard I n Rogers’s theory, acceptance and love that to measure.
are dependent on another’s behaving in certain ways and on fulfi lling Critical period A time when certain internal and external infl uences have
certain conditions. a major eff ect on development; at other periods, the same infl uences
Conditioned response (CR) A ft er conditioning, the response an organism will have little or no eff ect.
produces when a conditioned stimulus is presented. Cross-cultural research R esearch involving the exploration of the extent
Conditioned stimulus (CS) A n originally neutral stimulus that is paired to which people diff er from one culture to another.
with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired Cross-sectional study A method of studying developmental changes by
response in an organism when presented alone. comparing people of diff erent ages at about the same time.
Conditioned taste aversion C onditioned avoidance of certain foods even Cultural diversity training T eaching employees to adjust their attitudes
if there is only one pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. and actions so they can work eff ectively as part of a diverse workforce.
3
Glossary
Cultural truisms B eliefs that most members of a society accept as self- Dissociative disorders Disorders in which some aspect of the personality
evidently true. seems separated from the rest.
Culture Th e tangible goods and the values, attitudes, behaviors, and Dissociative fugue A disorder that involves fl ight from home and the
beliefs that are passed from one generation to another. assumption of a new identity with amnesia for past identity and
Culture-fair tests I ntelligence tests designed to eliminate cultural bias by events.
minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another. Dissociative identity disorder ( Also called multiple personality disorder.)
Dark adaptation I ncreased sensitivity of rods and cones in darkness. Disorder characterized by the separation of the personality into two or
more distinct personalities.
Decay theory A theory that argues that the passage of time causes
forgetting. Divergent thinking Th inking that meets the criteria of originality, inven-
Decibel U nit of measurement for the loudness of sounds. tiveness, and fl exibility.
Defense mechanisms S elf-deceptive techniques for reducing stress, Dominant gene M ember of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a
including denial, repression, projection, identifi cation, regression, certain trait.
intellectualization, reaction formation, displacement, and sublimation. Double-blind procedure E xperimental design useful in studies of the
Defensive attribution Th e tendency to attribute our successes to our own eff ects of drugs, in which neither the subject nor the researcher knows
eff orts or qualities and our failures to external factors. at the time of administration which subjects are receiving an active
drug and which are receiving an inactive substance.
Deindividuation A loss of personal sense of responsibility in a group.
Dreams V ivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily dur-
Deinstitutionalization P olicy of treating people with severe psychological
ing REM periods of sleep.
disorders in the larger community or in small residential centers such
as halfway houses, rather than in large public hospitals. Drive State of tension or arousal that motivates behavior.
Delusions F alse beliefs about reality that have no basis in fact. Drive-reduction theory S tates that motivated behavior is aimed at reduc-
Dendrites S hort fi bers that branch out from the cell body and pick up ing a state of bodily tension or arousal and returning the organism to
incoming messages. homeostasis.
Denial R efusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening reality. Dualism View that thoughts and feelings (the mind) are distinct from the
world of real objects and our bodies.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) C omplex molecule in a double-helix con-
fi guration that is the main ingredient of chromosomes and genes and Dysthymia A depressive disorder where the symptoms are generally less
that forms the code for all genetic information. severe than for major depressive disorder, but are present most days and
persist for at least 2 years.
Dependent personality disorder Personality disorder in which the person
is unable to make choices and decisions independently and cannot tol- Eclecticism P sychotherapeutic approach that recognizes the value of a
erate being alone. broad treatment package over a rigid commitment to one particular
form of therapy.
Dependent variable I n an experiment, the variable that is measured to see
how it is changed by manipulations in the independent variable. Eff erent neurons N eurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or
brain to the muscles and glands.
Depersonalization disorder A dissociative disorder whose essential
f eature is that the person suddenly feels changed or diff erent in a Ego Freud’s term for the part of the personality that mediates between
strange way. environmental demands (reality), conscience (superego), and instinc-
tual needs (id); now oft en used as a synonym for “self.”
Depressants C hemicals that slow down behavior or cognitive processes.
Depression A mood disorder characterized by overwhelming feelings of Ego ideal Th e part of the superego that consists of standards of what one
sadness, lack of interest in activities, and perhaps excessive guilt or feel- would like to be.
ings of worthlessness. Egocentric U nable to see things from another’s point of view.
Desensitization therapy A conditioning technique designed to gradually Eidetic imagery Th e ability to reproduce unusually sharp and detailed
reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation. images of something one has seen.
Developmental psychology Th e study of the changes that occur in people Elaborative rehearsal Th e linking of new information in short-term
from birth through old age. memory to familiar material stored in long-term memory.
D iathesis Biological predisposition. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) B iological therapy in which a mild elec-
Diathesis–stress model View that people biologically predisposed to a trical current is passed through the brain for a short period, oft en
mental disorder (those with a certain diathesis) will tend to exhibit that producing convulsions and temporary coma; used to treat severe, pro-
disorder when particularly aff ected by stress. longed depression.
Diff erence threshold or just-noticeable diff erence (jnd) Th e smallest Elevation M onocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that the
change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time. higher on the horizontal plane an object is, the farther away it appears.
Discrimination An unfair act or series of acts taken toward an entire Embryo A developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months aft er
group of people or individual members of that group. conception.
Disorganized schizophrenia Schizophrenic disorder in which bizarre and Emotion Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior.
childlike behaviors are common. Emotional intelligence A ccording to Goleman, a form of intelligence
Displacement Shift ing repressed motives and emotions from an original that refers to how eff ectively people perceive and understand their own
object to a substitute object. emotions and the emotions of others, and can regulate and manage
Display rules Culture-specifi c rules that govern how, when, and why their emotional behavior.
expressions of emotion are appropriate. Emotional memories L earned emotional responses to various stimuli.
Dissociative amnesia A disorder characterized by loss of memory for past Endocrine glands G lands of the endocrine system that release hormones
events without organic cause. into the bloodstream.
4
Glossary
Episodic memories Th e portion of long-term memory that stores person- Fixed-interval schedule A reinforcement schedule in which the correct
ally experienced events. response is reinforced aft er a fi xed length of time since the last
Erectile disorder (or erectile dysfunction) (ED) Th e inability of a man to reinforcement.
achieve or maintain an erection. Fixed-ratio schedule A reinforcement schedule in which the correct
Ethnicity A common cultural heritage—including religion, language, or response is reinforced aft er a fi xed number of correct responses.
ancestry—that is shared by a group of individuals. Flashbulb memory A vivid memory of a certain event and the incidents
Evolutionary psychology A n approach to, and subfi eld of, psychology surrounding it even aft er a long time has passed.
that is concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental Formal-operational stage I n Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive
processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve. development beginning about 11 years of age in which the individual
Exhibitionism C ompulsion to expose one’s genitals in public to achieve becomes capable of abstract thought.
sexual arousal. Fovea Th e area of the retina that is the center of the visual fi eld.
Expectancies I n Bandura’s view, what a person anticipates in a situation Framing Th e perspective from which we interpret information before
or as a result of behaving in certain ways. making a decision.
Expectancy theory Th eory that worker motivation depends on the expec- Fraternal twins T wins developed from two separate fertilized ova and
tation that by working hard they will achieve valued rewards. therefore diff erent in genetic makeup.
Experimental group I n a controlled experiment, the group subjected to a Free association A psychoanalytic technique that encourages the person
change in the independent variable. to talk without inhibition about whatever thoughts or fantasies come
Experimental method Research technique in which an investigator delib- to mind.
erately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then meas- Frequency Th e number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the pri-
ures the eff ects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior. mary determinant of pitch.
Experimenter bias E xpectations by the experimenter that might infl uence Frequency distribution A count of the number of scores that fall within
the results of an experiment or its interpretation. each of a series of intervals.
Explicit memory M emory for information that we can readily express in Frequency histogram T ype of bar graph that shows frequency distributions.
words and are aware of having; these memories can be intentionally Frequency polygon T ype of line graph that shows frequency distributions.
retrieved from memory.
Frequency theory Th eory that pitch is determined by the frequency with
Extinction A decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a which hair cells in the cochlea fi re.
learned response because of failure to continue pairing the US and
Frontal lobe P art of the cerebrum that is responsible for voluntary
CS (classical conditioning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant
movement; it is also important for attention, goal-directed behavior,
conditioning).
and appropriate emotional experiences.
Extraverts A ccording to Jung, people who usually focus on social life and
Frotteurism C ompulsion to achieve sexual arousal by touching or rub-
the external world instead of on their internal experience.
bing against a nonconsenting person in public situations.
Extrinsic motivation A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external
Frustration Th e feeling that occurs when a person is prevented from
reward or avoid punishment.
reaching a goal.
Factor analysis A statistical technique that identifi es groups of related
Frustration–aggression theory Th e theory that, under certain circum-
objects; it was used by Cattell to identify clusters of traits.
stances, people who are frustrated in their goals turn their anger away
Family studies S tudies of heritability in humans based on the assump- from the proper, powerful target and toward another, less powerful
tion that if genes infl uence a certain trait, close relatives should be more
target that is safer to attack.
similar on that trait than distant relatives.
Fully functioning person A ccording to Rogers, an individual whose self-
Family therapy A form of group therapy that sees the family as at least
concept closely resembles his or her inborn capacities or potentials.
partly responsible for the individual’s problems and that seeks to change
Functional fi xedness Th e tendency to perceive only a limited number of
all family members’ behaviors to the benefi t of the family unit as well as
uses for an object, thus interfering with the process of problem solving.
the troubled individual.
Functional job analysis A method for identifying the procedures and
Feature detectors S pecialized brain cells that only respond to particu-
processes that workers must use in the performance of the job.
lar elements in the visual fi eld such as movement or lines of specifi c
o rientation. Functionalist theory Th eory of mental life and behavior that is concerned
with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its
Female sexual arousal disorder Th e inability of a woman to become sexu-
environment.
ally aroused or to reach orgasm.
Fundamental attribution error Th e tendency of people to overemphasize
Feminist theory F eminist theories off er a wide variety of views on the
personal causes for other people’s behavior and to underemphasize per-
social roles of women and men, the problems and rewards of those
sonal causes for their own behavior.
roles, and prescriptions for changing those roles.
Ganglion cells N eurons that connect the bipolar cells in the eyes to the
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) A disorder that occurs in children
brain.
of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy; this disorder is charac-
terized by facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, brain dam- Gate-control theory Th e theory that a “neurological gate” in the spinal
age and cognitive impairments. cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain.
Fetishism A paraphilia in which a non-human object is the preferred or Gender Th e psychological and social meanings attached to being biologi-
exclusive method of achieving sexual excitement. cally male or female.
Fetus A developing human between 3 months aft er conception and birth. Gender constancy Th e realization that gender does not change with age.
Fixation A ccording to Freud, a partial or complete halt at some point in Gender identity A little girl’s knowledge that she is a girl, and a little boy’s
the individual’s psychosexual development. knowledge that he is a boy.
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