Ultrasound Imaging in Acute and Chronic Kidney Disease

157 Pages·2016·13.43 MB·English

by  M. Meola

Ultrasound Imaging in Acute and Chronic Kidney Disease
Contributions to Nephrology
Vol. 188
Series Editor
Claudio Ronco
Vicenza
Ultrasound Imaging
in Acute and Chronic
Kidney Disease
Volume Editors
Mario Meola
Pisa
Ilaria Petrucci
Pisa
Claudio Ronco
Vicenza
74 figures, 58 in color, and 8 tables, 2016
BBaansegl k· oFrke ·i Bbeuirjgin ·g P ·a Srihsa · nLognhdaio · nTo · kNyeow · KYuoarkla · CLuhmenpnuari ·· SNinegwa pDoerlhe i· ·S ydney
Contributions to Nephrology
(Founded 1975 by Geoff rey M. Berlyne)
Mario Meola Ilaria Petrucci
Department of Internal Medicine Department of Internal Medicine
Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies
University of Pisa University of Pisa
Via Savi 10 Via Savi 10
IT–56126 Pisa (Italy) IT–56126 Pisa (Italy)
Claudio Ronco
Department of Nephrology
Dialysis and Transplantation
International Renal Research Institute
(IRRIV)
San Bortolo Hospital
Viale Rodolfi 37
IT–36100 Vicenza (Italy)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Meola, Mario, editor. | Petrucci, Ilaria, editor. | Ronco, C.
(Claudio), 1951- editor.
Title: Ultrasound imaging in acute and chronic kidney disease / volume
editors Mario Meola, Ilaria Petrucci, Claudio Ronco.
Other titles: Contributions to nephrology ; v. 188.
Description: Basel ; New York : Karger, 2016. | Series: Contributions to
nephrology ; vol. 188 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016015847| ISBN 9783318058833 (hard cover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9783318058840 (ebook)
Subjects: | MESH: Renal Insufficiency, Chronic--ultrasonography | Acute
Kidney Injury--ultrasonography
Classification: LCC RC918.R4 | NLM WJ 342 | DDC 616.6/14--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016015847
Bibliographic Indices. This publication is listed in bibliographic services, including Current Contents® and Index
Medicus.
Disclaimer. The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual
authors and contributors and not of the publisher and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements in the book
is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality
or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from
any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
Drug Dosage. The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set
forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in
view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to
drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any change in
indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the
recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
© Copyright 2016 by S. Karger AG, P.O. Box, CH–4009 Basel (Switzerland)
www.karger.com
Printed on acid-free and non-aging paper (ISO 9706) by Kraft Druck, Ettlingen
IeIeSS--SBIISSNNSB N0N937 1908672–68–32–5––3132–41734881–280–50858838–43–0
Contents
VII Preface
Meola, M.; Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
Acute Kidney Disease
1 Pathophysiology and Clinical Work-Up of Acute Kidney Injury
Meola, M. (Pisa); Nalesso, F. (Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa);
Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
11 Ultrasound in Acute Kidney Disease
Meola, M. (Pisa); Nalesso, F. (Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa);
Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
21 Clinical Scenarios in Acute Kidney Injury: Pre-Renal Acute Kidney
Injury
Meola, M. (Pisa); Nalesso, F. (Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa);
Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
33 Clinical Scenarios in Acute Kidney Injury: Hepatorenal Syndrome
Meola, M. (Pisa); Nalesso, F. (Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa);
Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
39 Clinical Scenarios in Acute Kidney Injury: Parenchymal Acute Kidney
Injury-Tubulo-Interstitial Diseases
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
48 Clinical Scenarios in Acute Kidney Injury-Parenchymal Acute Kidney
Injury – Vascular Diseases
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
64 Clinical Scenarios in Acute Kidney Injury: Post-Renal Acute Kidney
Injury
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Ronco, C. (Vicenza)
Chronic Kidney Disease
69 IMmeaoglai,n Mg. i(nP iCsah);r Soanmico Knii,d Sn. e(Pyis Da/iVseicaesneza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa)
V
81 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Vascular Chronic
Diseases
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa)
89 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Parenchymal Chronic
Renal Diseases – Part 1
Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Meola, M. (Pisa)
98 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Parenchymal Chronic
Renal Diseases – Part 2
Petrucci, I. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Meola, M. (Pisa)
108 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Chronic
Tubulointerstitial Diseases
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa)
120 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Cystic Renal Diseases
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa)
131 Clinical Scenarios in Chronic Kidney Disease: Kidneys’ Structural
Changes in End-Stage Renal Disease
Meola, M. (Pisa); Samoni, S. (Pisa/Vicenza); Petrucci, I. (Pisa)
144 Author Index
145 Subject Index

VI Contents
Preface
Ultrasound imaging techniques today represent a complementary yet indis-
pensable tool in the process of diagnosis and care of kidney disease. Ultrasound
machines are available in most departments of intensive care and nephrology,
and their use has become a routine for clinicians directly involved in patient care
rather than being procedures reserved only to experienced radiologists. The so-
called ‘ Visual Medicine ’ is becoming part of the core curriculum of several dis-
ciplines and nephrology is one of the most advanced fields in this endeavor. The
evolution of ultrasound equipment into smaller and flexible devices, has further
contributed to the expansion of application of sonography in the process of di-
agnosis. The growing demand for education and training in this area has
prompted us to develop this volume, timely published by Karger, in the book
series ‘Contributions to Nephrology’.
New generations of physicians and nurses consider renal echography to be
an expansion of their physical examination of the patient, making portable ul-
trasound equipment similar to what the stethoscope has been in the last century.
This visionary approach requires the inclusion of visual medicine in the core
curriculum of young physicians and nurses to make them acquainted with the
newest techniques and the potential of the imaging approach to diagnosis.
Nephrology is a subspecialty of medicine that will gather specific advantages
from the wide application of ultrasound diagnostic techniques. The kidney is a
deep organ in the abdomen and physical examination is often frustrating, if not
useless, for the diagnosis of kidney problems. Echography has already demon-
strated in recent years the enormous advantages for interventional practices
such as kidney biopsy. Today, with the addition of Doppler techniques, US im-
aging in nephrology has further enhanced its importance.
Sonography is also important in the case of acute kidney diseases, allowing to
expand the spectrum of diagnostic criteria and to trigger specific treatment
stetrramteingiee sm aosr ipnh tohleo gcaicsael opfa arcaumtee tuerrisn aanryd tarta ctht eo bssatmruec ttiimone. tToh eex ppolossrieb filuitnyc ttoio dnea-l
VII
aspects with contrast-enhanced or Doppler ultrasound techniques, is of great
value in acutely ill patients especially in the case of oliguria. The non-invasive
nature of the technique and the possibility to perform a morphological analysis
without potentially toxic contrast media makes echography a technique of
choice in patients at risk for acute kidney injury. Recently, further improvement
has been achieved in contrast-enhanced ultrasound using non-toxic gas micro-
bubbles as the image contrast enhancer. Another advantage of modern echog-
raphy is the light weight of equipment, the easy transportability and the possibil-
ity to perform examinations at the bedside without the need of transporting the
patient to radiologic departments or special imaging areas of the hospital.
Of course the wide application of echography in nephrology and critical care
nephrology will require an investment in equipment and education of physi-
cians and nurses. It remains obvious that ultrasound will be a first-line approach
for diagnosis while more sophisticated approaches and other imaging tech-
niques will always require an experienced radiologist and large and expensive
equipment. Nevertheless, the wider application of ultrasound techniques in clin-
ical routine will allow to rule out at a first glance some important pathological
conditions and to concentrate on an accurate diagnosis of the patient. Clinical
and biochemical data should also corroborate the diagnostic pathway. Because
the outcome of sonography is operator-dependent, special attention should be
made to make as many specialists in the area of nephrology and intensive care
acquainted with the technique. For this reason, we feel that this book may rep-
resent an important resource both for beginners and for advanced users of
echography that will focus on their daily practice on diagnosis of kidney disease
supported by ultrasound imaging techniques.
Mario Meola, Pisa
Ilaria Petrucci, Pisa
Claudio Ronco , Vicenza

VIII Meola · Ronco
Acute Kidney Disease

Contrib Nephrol. Basel, Karger, 2016, vol 188, pp 1–10 ( DOI: 10.1159/000445460 )
Pathophysiology and Clinical Work-Up
of Acute Kidney Injury
Mario Meola a, b · Federico Nalesso c · Ilaria Petrucci a, b ·

Sara Samoni a, c · Claudio Ronco c  

a Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, b Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pisa,

Pisa, and c Department of Nephrology Dialysis and Transplantation, International Renal Research

Institute (IRRIV), San Bortolo Hospital, Vicenza , Italy
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI), also known in the past as acute renal failure, is a syndrome char-
acterized by the rapid loss of kidney excretory function. It is usually diagnosed by the ac-
cumulation of end products of nitrogen metabolism (urea and creatinine) or decreased
urine output or both. AKI is the clinical consequence of several disorders that acutely affect
the kidney, causing electrolytes and acid–base imbalance, hyperhydration and loss of
depurative function. AKI is common in critical care patients in whom it is often secondary
to extrarenal events. No specific therapies can attenuate AKI or accelerate renal function
recovery; thus, the only treatment is supportive. New diagnostic techniques such as renal
biomarkers might improve early diagnosis. Also ultrasonography helps nephrologists in
AKI diagnosis, in order to describe and follow kidney alterations and find possible causes
of AKI. Renal replacement therapy is a life-saving treatment if AKI is severe. If patients sur-
vive to AKI, and did not have previous chronic kidney disease (CKD), they typically recov-
er to dialysis independence. However, evidence suggests that patients who have had AKI
are at increased risk of subsequent CKD. © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel
Definitions
The definition of acute renal failure (ARF) is usually used to describe a syn-
drome in which the rapid fall of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) determines
retention of nitrogen catabolites with water and electrolyte imbalance and al-
teration in acid–base status. Loss of GFR leads to a rapid increase in serum