Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Applications, Third Edition (Dekker Mechanical Engineering)

728 Pages·2011·7.9 MB·English

by  Dale Ensminger

ACOUSTICS
Ultrasonics
Ultrasonics
Fundamentals, Technologies,
Fundamentals, Technologies,
and Applications
and Applications
T H I R D E D I T I O N
T H I R D E D I T I O N
Recent advances in power electronics greatly benefit the multidisciplinary field F
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of modern ultrasonics. More powerful, compact, and versatile electronic chips
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and software enable new computer-based devices for real-time data capture, dU
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storage, analysis, and display and advance the science and technology employed m
in commercial systems and applications of ultrasound. Reviewing the scientific e
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basis behind these improvements, Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technologies, tat
Applications, Third Edition discusses them in detail, with new and additional l
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figures and references, offering a completely revised and expanded examination
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of the state of modern ultrasonics.
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This new edition of a bestselling industry reference discusses the full breadth ns
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of ultrasonics applications for industrial and medical use and provides the lo
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fundamentals and insights gathered over the authors’ collective 80 years in
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the field. It provides a unique and comprehensive treatment of the science and
s
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technology behind the latest advancements and applications in both low and a
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high power implementations. Coverage combines fundamental physics, a review
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and analysis of sensors and transducers, and the systems required for the full
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spectrum of industrial, nondestructive testing and medical and biomedical uses. p
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It includes citations of numerous references and covers both main stream and lis
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the more unusual and obscure applications of ultrasound.
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Ultrasonics is ubiquitous in its industrial applications for sensing, NDT, and
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process measurements, in high power forms for processing and sonochemistry, s
as well as in medical procedures where it is used for diagnosis, therapy and
surgery. This book provides a complete overview of the field, presenting numerous
applications, cutting-edge advancements and improvements, additional figures
Dale Ensminger and
and references, and a look at future directions. THIRD
EDITION
Leonard J. Bond
DK8897
an informa business
DK8897_Cover_mech.indd 1 8/10/11 3:42 PM
Ultrasonics
Fundamentals, Technologies,
and Applications
T H I R D E D I T I O N
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Founding Editor
L. L. Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
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Ultrasonics
Fundamentals, Technologies,
and Applications
T H I R D E D I T I O N
Dale Ensminger and
Leonard J. Bond
Boca Raton London New York
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Contents
Preface to the Third Edition ..................................................................................xvii
Preface to the Second Edition .................................................................................xxi
Preface to the First Edition ..................................................................................xxiii
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................xxv
Chapter 1 Ultrasonics: A Broad Field ...................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1
1.2 Brief Early History ....................................................................5
1.3 Underwater Sound (SONAR) ....................................................7
1.4 Medical and Biological Ultrasonics ..........................................8
1.5 Industrial Ultrasonics ..............................................................11
1.6 Nondestructive Testing/Evaluation ..........................................14
1.7 Ultrasonics in Electronics........................................................15
1.8 Physical Acoustics ...................................................................16
1.9 Ultrasonic Systems: Transmitters and Receivers ....................20
1.10 Low-Intensity Applications .....................................................21
1.11 High-Intensity Applications ....................................................22
1.12 Modern Ultrasonics: An Interdisciplinary Field .....................22
References ..........................................................................................23
Chapter 2 Elastic Wave Propagation and Associated Phenomena ......................27
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................27
2.2 Power Delivered to an Oscillating System ..............................29
2.3 Velocity of Sound ....................................................................29
2.3.1 Velocity of Sound in Solids ........................................30
2.3.2 Velocity of Sound in Liquids ......................................33
2.3.3 Velocity of Sound in Gases ........................................34
2.4 Impingment of an Ultrasonic Wave on a Boundary
between Two Media .................................................................36
2.4.1 Simple Reflection and Transmission at
Normal Incidence .......................................................37
2.4.2 Some Basic Mechanics ...............................................40
2.4.3 General Considerations of Incident Waves ................42
2.4.4 Development of General Equations for
Reflection and Refraction Where Mode
Conversion Is Possible .............................................44
2.4.5 Wave Incident on a Liquid–Solid Plane
Interface, Semi-Infinite Media ...................................50
2.4.6 Shear Wave at a Solid–Solid Interface Polarized
Parallel to the Plane of the Interface ..........................52
v
vi Contents
2.4.7 Reflection, Refraction, and Mode Conversion in
General Applications of Ultrasonic Energy ...............55
2.5 Transmission through Thin Plates ...........................................56
2.6 Diffraction ...............................................................................59
2.6.1 Huygens’ Principle .....................................................59
2.6.2 Diffraction in Three-Dimensional Space ...................63
2.6.3 Directivity Pattern ......................................................64
2.6.4 Focusing .....................................................................64
2.7 Standing Waves .......................................................................65
2.8 Doppler Effect .........................................................................67
2.9 Superposition of Waves ...........................................................70
2.10 Attenuation of an Ultrasonic Wave .........................................72
2.10.1 Attenuation Due to Beam Spreading .........................72
2.10.2 Attenuation Due to Scattering ....................................73
2.10.2.1 Scattering from a Cylindrical
Obstruction in a Homogeneous
Medium .......................................................75
2.10.2.2 Scattering by a Sphere in a
Homogeneous Medium ...............................75
2.10.2.3 Scattering from a Disk-Shaped Cavity
in the Path of an Ultrasonic Beam ..............77
2.10.2.4 Scattering from an Elastic Isotropic
Sphere in a Homogeneous Medium ............77
2.10.2.5 Numerical Techniques to Study Wave
Propagation and Scattering .........................78
2.10.2.6 Scattering in Practice ..................................83
2.10.3 Attenuation Due to Hysteresis ....................................88
2.10.4 Attenuation Due to Other Mechanisms ......................88
2.10.5 Measurement System Models .....................................88
2.10.5.1 Resolution ...................................................90
2.10.5.2 Signal-to-Noise and Measurement
Window .......................................................91
2.11 Relaxation ................................................................................92
2.12 High-Power Phenomena ..........................................................94
2.12.1 Cavitation ...................................................................95
References ..........................................................................................97
Chapter 3 Fundamental Equations Employed in Ultrasonic
Design and Applications ..................................................................101
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................101
3.2 Simple Spring–Mass Oscillator .............................................102
3.2.1 Ideal Condition—Simple
Harmonic Motion .....................................................102
3.2.2 Real Condition—Damped Simple
Harmonic Motion .....................................................104
Contents vii
3.2.3 Effect of Damping on Phase Relationships—The
Forced Oscillator ......................................................105
3.3 Wave Equations .....................................................................107
3.3.1 Plane-Wave Equation ...............................................108
3.3.2 General Wave Equation ............................................109
3.4 Solution of the Plane-Wave Equation, Linear System ...........110
3.4.1 General Solution .......................................................110
3.4.2 Free–Free Longitudinally Vibrating
Uniform Bar ........................................................111
3.4.3 Stress in a Vibrating Uniform Bar ...........................113
3.4.4 Mechanical Impedance ............................................114
3.4.5 Quality Factor (Q) ....................................................116
3.5 Transverse-Wave Equation ....................................................119
3.6 Solution of the Transverse-Wave Equation ............................120
3.6.1 Clamped–Free Uniform Bar ....................................121
3.6.2 Free–Free Bar (Bar Free at Both Ends) ...................126
3.6.3 Clamped–Clamped Bar (Bar Clamped
at Both Ends) ............................................................129
3.6.4 Effect of Geometry on Transverse
Vibrations of Bars ....................................................129
3.7 Plate Waves ............................................................................130
3.7.1 General .....................................................................130
3.7.2 Lamb Waves .............................................................131
3.7.3 Rayleigh Waves ........................................................136
3.7.4 Flexural Plates ..........................................................136
3.7.4.1 Rectangular Plate with Simply
Supported Edges .......................................137
3.7.4.2 Free Circular Plate ....................................138
3.7.4.3 Circular Plate with Its Center Fixed .........138
3.7.4.4 Finite Exciting Sources (Transducers) ......139
References ........................................................................................139
Chapter 4 Design of Ultrasonic Horns for High Power Applications ...............141
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................141
4.2 Horn Equations ......................................................................141
4.3 Types of Horns ......................................................................142
4.3.1 Cylinder or Uniform Bar as an
Ultrasonic Horn ........................................................142
4.3.2 Stepped Horn (Double Cylinder) .............................142
4.3.3 Exponentially Tapered Horn ....................................143
4.3.4 Wedge-Shaped Horns ...............................................146
4.3.5 Conical Horns...........................................................151
4.3.6 Catenoidal Horns ......................................................155
4.4 Combining Sections of Different Configurations
for Practical Applications ......................................................157
viii Contents
4.5 Effect of Damping on the Operation of Horns ......................159
4.6 Wide Horns and Horns of Large Cross Section ....................160
4.6.1 Wide-Blade Type Horns ...........................................162
4.6.2 Horns of Large Cross Section ..................................164
4.6.3 Rotating Hollow Horn ..............................................164
4.7 Advanced Horn and System Design ......................................167
References ........................................................................................169
Chapter 5 Basic Design of Ultrasonic Transducers ..........................................171
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................171
5.2 Equivalent Circuits ................................................................174
5.3 Piezoelectric Transducers ......................................................175
5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Simple Piezoelectric
Transducer ................................................................178
5.3.2 Efficiency of a Simple Piezoelectric Transducer ......180
5.3.3 Maximum Power Transfer between Electronic
Power Source and Simple Piezoelectric Transducers....181
5.3.4 Determining Transformation Factor (α) for the
Piezoelectric Transducer Material ...........................183
5.3.5 Quality Factor (Q) of Piezoelectric
Transducers ..............................................................183
5.3.6 KLM and Examples of Designs Using
Transducer Model .....................................................184
5.3.7 Piezoelectric Transducers for High-Intensity
Applications ..............................................................185
5.3.8 Pulse-Type Transducers for Low-Intensity
Applications Sensing ................................................189
5.3.9 Piezoelectric Polymers for Transducers ...................190
5.3.10 Piezoelectric Materials and Their Properties ...........191
5.4 Magnetostrictive Transducers................................................192
5.4.1 Maximum Power Transfer to the
Magnetostrictive Transducer ....................................197
5.4.2 Efficiency of the Magnetostrictive Transducer ........198
5.4.3 Magnetostrictive Transducers for High-Intensity
Applications ..............................................................198
5.4.4 Giant Magnetostrictive Materials .............................200
5.4.5 Comparative Properties between Selected
Magnetostrictive Materials.......................................200
5.5 Electromagnetic Devices .......................................................201
5.6 Pneumatic Devices (Whistles) ...............................................202
5.6.1 Some Practical Applications of
Pneumatic Whistles ..................................................205
5.6.1.1 Coating Fine Particles ...............................205
5.6.1.2 Controlling Foam in Large Industrial
Tanks for Liquids ......................................206
Contents ix
5.7 Mechanical Devices ..............................................................206
5.8 Some Special High-Frequency Transducers .........................207
5.8.1 Electromagnetic Coupling ........................................207
5.8.2 Electrostatic Coupling ..............................................208
5.8.3 Surface Acoustic Wave Devices ...............................208
5.8.4 Resistive Layer Transducers .....................................209
5.8.5 Laser Ultrasonics ......................................................210
5.8.6 Ultrasonic Arrays .....................................................211
5.9 Transducer-Generated Wave Fields .......................................212
5.10 General Remarks ...................................................................215
References ........................................................................................216
Chapter 6 Determining Properties of Materials ...............................................219
6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................219
6.2 Approximate Methods for Measurement of
Velocity and Attenuation .......................................................220
6.2.1 Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation in
Isotropic Solids .........................................................220
6.2.2 Measurement of Velocity and
Attenuation in Fluids ................................................223
6.3 Methods of Measuring Velocity of Sound .............................224
6.3.1 Interferometer Method .............................................225
6.3.2 Resonance Method ...................................................226
6.3.3 “Sing-Around” Method ............................................226
6.3.4 Pulse-Superposition Method ....................................228
6.3.5 Pulse-Echo-Overlap Method ....................................229
6.3.6 Measurements in Materials of High
Attenuation ...............................................................230
6.3.7 Measurements at High Temperatures .......................233
6.3.8 Measurements at High Pressures .............................237
6.3.9 Water and Other Reference Materials ......................240
6.4 Low-Frequency Measurements of Elastic Moduli and
Poisson’s Ratio .......................................................................242
6.4.1 Measuring Flexural and Longitudinal Resonant
Frequencies of Bars ..................................................242
6.4.2 Measuring Torsional Resonant Frequencies of
Isotropic Bars ...........................................................244
6.4.3 Determining Poisson’s Ratio, Young’s
Modulus, and Shear Modulus from Flexural
and Torsional Resonance Data .................................244
6.5 Density, Viscosity and Particle Size Measurements ..............245
6.5.1 Ultrasonic Device for Quantitative Density
Measurements of Slurries .........................................245
6.5.2 Viscosity Measurements by Ultrasonics ..................246