Truschke_Cosmopolitan Encounters Dissertation

381 Pages·2012·2.21 MB·English

by  A Truschke

Cosmopolitan Encounters: Sanskrit and Persian at the Mughal Court

Audrey Truschke

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

2012
© 2012
Audrey Truschke
All rights reserved
ABSTRACT
Cosmopolitan Encounters: Sanskrit and Persian at the Mughal Court
Audrey Truschke

In this dissertation, I analyze interactions between Sanskrit and Persian literary
cultures at the Mughal court during the years 1570-1650 C.E. During this period, the Mughals
rose to prominence as one of the most powerful dynasties of the early modern world and
patronized Persian as a language of both literature and empire. Simultaneously, the imperial
court supported Sanskrit textual production, participated in Sanskrit cultural life, and
produced Persian translations of Sanskrit literature. For their part, Sanskrit intellectuals
became influential members of the Mughal court, developed a linguistic interest in Persian,
and wrote extensively about their imperial experiences. Yet the role of Sanskrit at the Mughal
court remains a largely untold story in modern scholarship, as do the resulting engagements
across cultural lines. To the extent that scholars have thought about Sanskrit and Persian in
tandem, they have generally been blinded by their own language barriers and mistakenly
asserted that there was no serious interaction between the two. I challenge this uncritical view
through a systematic reading of texts in both languages and provide the first detailed account
of exchanges between these traditions at the Mughal court. I further argue that these cross-
cultural events are central to understanding the construction of power in the Mughal Empire
and the cultural and literary dynamics of early modern India.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION, 1
Literary Cultures and Imperial Narratives, 3
New Methodologies: Sanskrit, Persian, and Multilingualism, 4
Imperial Culture: The Mughal Court 1570-1650, 9
Connected Histories in the Center of an Empire, 13
Historiography on Sanskrit and Persian in Mughal India, 15
Premodern Contexts: A Brief History of Cross-Cultural Encounters, 18
Mughal Contexts: Materials and Chapter Outline, 23

1. SANSKRIT LITERATI AND LITERATURE AT THE MUGHAL COURT, 29
Patronage, Associations, and Textual Sources, 30
A Social History of Sanskrit Intellectuals at the Mughal Court, 32
Establishing Relations: Jain and Brahmans Enter the Mughal Milieu, 33
Sanskrit Literati as Politicians, Intellectuals, and Religious Guides, 37
Divergent Paths: The Conclusion of Jain Imperial Relations, 46
Brahmans Flourish in Imperial Environs, 48
Sanskrit Literary Production for the Mughal Court, 56
Praising the Mughals in Sanskrit Muktakas and Dedications, 57
Independent Sanskrit Panegyrics for the Mughals, 63
Enlightening Akbar in Śānticandra’s Treasury of Compassion, 64
Rudrakavi’s Poems to Khān-i Khānān and Jahangir, 72
Jagannātha’s Play of Asaf [Khan], 81
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Sanskrit Grammars and Lexicons of Persian, 85
Kṛṣṇadāsa’s Illumination of Persian for Akbar, 87
Kavi Karṇapūra’s Light on Sanskrit and Persian Words for Jahangir, 92
Multilingual Titling Practices, 95
Conclusion: Multicultural Mughals, 105

2. JAIN ACCOUNTS OF THE MUGHAL COURT, 108
Historical Background and Nature of the Materials, 108
Representing Mughal Culture in Sanskrit, 113
Rewriting the Mughal Conquest in Padmasāgara’s Jagadgurukāvya, 115
Imperial Milieus: Persianate, Islamicate, and Sanskrit, 129
Devavimala Allows Islam to Enter Sanskrit Discourse, 130
Siddhicandra’s Vision of Sanskrit Culture at the Mughal Court, 135
Courtly Religious Practices Beyond Islam, 140
Sun Worship and Sectarian Gains, 141
Status and Power in a Jain Rite at Court, 145
Representing Themselves: Religious and Secular Authority, 151
Finding Authority for Jain Leaders in the Mughal Context, 152
Erudition and Flexibility in Jain Defenses Against the Charge of Atheism, 157
Religious Anxieties: Jain Asceticism within the Comforts of Court, 168
Conclusion: Beyond History, 175

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3. IMPERIAL TRANSLATION: THE PERSIAN MAHĀBHĀRATA, 181
Centrality of the Razmnāmah and Previous Scholarship, 182
Translation Infrastructure and Social Collaboration, 186
Multiple Sanskrit Sources for the Strange Tale, 190
Making a Mughal Epic through Translation Practices, 200
Cultivating an Indo-Persian Register, 200
Acculturation and Anxieties in a Crowded Divine Landscape, 204
Introducing Poetry and Persian Aesthetics, 213
Rewriting the Rules of Politics and Kingship, 217
The Imperial Reception of the Razmnāmah, 227
Power Politics in Abū al-Faz̤l’s Preface to the Razmnāmah, 227
Aesthetic Revolution in Fayz̤ī’s Mahābhārat, 239
Rewriting History in Ṭāhir Muḥammad Sabzavārī’s Abridged Mahābhārat, 244
Conclusion: Politics and Aesthetics, 250

4. INDO-PERSIAN RECEPTIONS: COURTLY TREATMENTS OF SANSKRIT KNOWLEDGE AND
LITERATURE, 253
Learning of India: Abū al-Faz̤l’s Formulation of Sanskrit Knowledge Systems, 254
Previous Scholarship on Ā’īn-i Akbarī, 255
Contexts and Predecessors of the Account of India, 257
Framing the Account of India and Learning of India, 261
Content and Analysis in the Learning of India, 265
Elusive Sanskrit Sources, 266
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Nine Philosophical Schools, 269
Sanskrit Aesthetic Theory in Persian, 273
Abū al-Faz̤l’s Political Project, 277
Many Mughal Rāmāyaṇas, 279
Problems with Akbar’s Rāmāyan: Authorship and Access, 280
Imperial Reactions to Akbar’s Rāmāyan, 284
That Black Book: Badā’ūnī’s Objection, 285
Getting it Wrong: Raḥīm’s Take on Rāma’s Story, 291
A Marvelous Tale: Jahangir’s Interpretation of Akbar’s Rāmāyan, 294
Later Mughal Rāmāyans, 297
The Impact of Sanskrit Literature and Knowledge Beyond Akbar’s Court, 301
Firishtah: A Deccani Perspective on Sanskrit Learning in Indo-Persian Texts, 302
Firishtah on the Mahābhārata as a Source for India’s Pre-Islamic Past, 303
Islamic Links: Firishtah’s Version of Pre-Islamic Indian History, 307
Integrated History: Counting Kings in Shah Jahan’s Court, 310
Conclusion: Incorporating Sanskrit Knowledge, 314

CONCLUSION, 317
The End of Sanskrit and Persian Encounters in the Mughal Milieu, 317
Beyond Legitimation: The Political Aesthetic in the Mughal Empire, 322
Building an Indo-Persian Polity, 327
Writings and Reticence in Multiple Sanskrit Traditions, 328
Internal Frontiers: The Intersection of Culture and Power in Mughal India, 335
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World Frontiers: New Methods for Imperial History, 340

BIBLIOGRAPHY, 344

APPENDIX: FOUR SANSKRIT VERSES TRANSLITERATED IN THE RAZMNĀMAH, 369
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I stand on the shoulders of many dedicated advisors, and my initial thanks are due to
my dissertation committee members. First and foremost I thank Sheldon Pollock, who has
challenged and supported me at every step of my academic work. I am profoundly grateful for
his time, criticisms, and advice over the years. Allison Busch has likewise been formative to my
work through countless enlightening conversations, her close attention to detail, and constant
support. Muzaffar Alam patiently taught me to read Persian manuscripts and has always been
eager to engage with my work. Sudipta Kaviraj and Rachel McDermott have provided me with
valuable feedback, helpful questions, and encouragement.
In addition, I thank the many scholars, both near and far, who have helped at various
stages of my research. At home, I am grateful to Hossein Kamaly for reading Indo-Persian texts
with me, usually on his own time, and to Somadeva Vasudeva for his assistance with Sanskrit
materials. Jack Hawley and Frances Pritchett have provided constructive feedback on my work
over the years. Bindu Bhatt, the former South Asia librarian at Columbia, helped me procure
certain elusive texts. From further afield, I thank the following scholars for providing
materials, engaging in many fruitful discussions, and always being ready to field tough
questions: John Cort, Paul Dundas, Francesca Orsini, S.R. Sarma, John Seyller, and Sunil
Sharma.
I am honored and grateful to have received a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation
Research Abroad grant that funded my international research. During my year of research
abroad (2009-2010), many people assisted with both the academic and practical aspects of my
work. In India, I particularly thank Najaf Haider and Heeraman Tiwari for generously hosting
me at Jawaharlal Nehru University and also Gulfishan Khan at Aligarh Muslim University for
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her enthusiasm and support. S.K. Bharathi and the entire staff at the United States-India
Educational Foundation were invaluable in facilitating my research. Surendra Bothra and
Vipin Baj helped me track down bhandars in Jaipur, and Yatin Shah ensured a smooth and
productive visit to Patan. Suzanne Slesin and Michael Steinberg provided me with quite
comfortable accommodations in Paris.
During my archival work in India, many institutions, temples, and libraries gave me
access to their manuscript archives. Special thanks are due here to the Birla family in Kolkata
for allowing me to view their Razmnāmah manuscript and the Indira Gandhi National Centre
for the Arts in Delhi. I also gratefully acknowledge the following institutions in India for
allowing me access to their manuscript collections: Acharya Shri Kailasasagarsuri Gyanmandir
in Koba, Allahabad Municipal Museum, Anandasrama in Pune, Anup Sanskrit Library in
Bikaner, Asiatic Society of Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Mumbai, Baroda Oriental Institute,
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune, Bharatiya Itihas Samsodha Mandal in Pune,
Cama Institute in Bombay, Deccan College, Digambara Jain Bada Terapanthi Mandir in Jaipur,
Hemacandra Jnana Mandir in Patan, Iran House in Delhi, Khuda Bakhsh Library in Patna, LD
Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad, Lucknow State Museum, Man Singh Pustak Prakash in
Jodhpur, Maulana Azad Library in Aligarh, National Library in Calcutta, Oriental Manuscript
Library at Osmania University, Rampur Raza Library, Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute in
Jodhpur, Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad, and the University of Mumbai.
I also benefited immensely from the resources and generous hospitality of the
following archives in the United Kingdom and France: Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
Bodleian Library, British Library, Royal Asiatic Society in London, and Wellcome Library. I also
extend special thanks to the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha, Qatar and the Freer Gallery of Art
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