Trees and forests : a colour guide : biology, pathology, propagation, silviculture, surgery, biomes, ecology, conservation

289 Pages·2010·49.4 MB·English

TREES AND
FORESTS
A Colour Guide
Biology, Pathology, Propagation, Silviculture,
Surgery, Biomes, Ecology, Conservation
Edited by
BRYAN G BOWES
Formerly Senior Lecturer at the
Department of Botany
University of Glasgow, UK
MANSON
PUBLISHING
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Contents
Preface 5 Temperate evergreen forests of
Contributors 6 South Africa 77
Abbreviations 7 Temperate evergreen forests of northern
Dedications 8 and central Chile 80
Temperate mixed evergreen forests of the
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO WOODY HABITAT Mediterranean 82
Chapter 1 Survey of trees: their global
significance, architecture, and early Chapter 5 Tropical and sub-tropical
evolution 9 rain and dry forests 87
Bryan G Bowes Ghillean T Prance
Introduction 9 Introduction 87
Types of trees 11 The forests of tropical America 90
Importance of trees for civilization 17 The forests of southeast Asia and Australia 97
Tree architecture 24 The forests of Africa 99
The evolution of land plants and trees 32 Old world dry semi-deciduous forests 101
Montane forests 101
SECTION 2 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS Secondary forests 102
Chapter 2 Northern boreal and montane
coniferous forests 40 SECTION 3 TREE MORPHOLOGY, ANATOMY,
Aljos Farjon AND HISTOLOGY
Introduction 40 Chapter 6 Woody thickening in trees
Conifers of the boreal forest belt 41 and shrubs 104
Montane conifers 44 Bryan G Bowes
Coastal conifers 46 Introduction 104
Concluding remarks 50 Vascular activity in broadleaved and
coniferous trees 107
Chapter 3 Temperate deciduous and Structure and function of bark 120
temperate rain forests 51
Hugh Angus SECTION 4 TREE PATHOLOGY
Temperate deciduous forests (TDFs) 51 Chapter 7 The role of cell-wall polymers
Temperate rain forests (TRFs) 61 in disease resistance in woody plants 126
Christopher T Brett
Chapter 4 Temperate mixed evergreen Introduction 126
forests 68 The molecular structure of cell-wall
Stephen D Hopper, Erika Pignatti Wikus, polymers 128
and Sandro Pignatti The cell wall as a physical barrier to
Introduction 68 infection 133
Temperate evergreen forests of Australia 70 Active defence mechanisms involving
Temperate evergreen forests of Tasmania the cell wall 135
and New Zealand 76 Future developments 137
4
Chapter 8 Microbial and viral pathogens, Classification of systems 212
and plant parasites of plantation and Even-aged systems 212
forest trees 139 Uneven-aged systems 218
Stephen Woodward Silvicultural systems in different parts
Introduction 139 of the tropics 220
Tree root diseases 140 Concluding remarks 224
Diseases of stems 149
Diseases of foliage 155 Chapter 12 Tree pruning and surgery in
Decay 160 arboriculture 225
Rust diseases 165 David Thorman
Wilt diseases 169 Introduction 225
Virus diseases 173 Rationale and problems of tree surgery 229
Parasitic plants 174 Tree pruning techniques 230
Acknowledgements 177 Phenology 234
Pollarding 234
Chapter 9 Insect pests of some important Artificial support systems 235
forest trees 178 Tree felling 236
Claire Ozanne Concluding remarks 236
Introduction 178
Sap feeders 179 Chapter 13 Tree propagation for forestry
Bark and stem borers 183 and arboriculture 238
Shoot borers 188 Brent McCown and Thomas Beuchel
Bark chewers 191 Introduction 238
Defoliators 192 Overview of concepts 238
Termites 195 Propagation by seed 239
Concluding remarks 197 Vegetative propagation 242
Handling of young propagules 248
SECTION 5 FOREST ECOLOGY AND Ethics in tree propagation 251
MANAGEMENT, TREE SURGERY,
PROPAGATION, AND CONSERVATION Chapter 14 Forest and woodland
Chapter 10 General forest ecological conservation 252
processes 198 Ghillean T Prance
Peter A Thomas Introduction 252
Introduction 198 Reserve size 253
Size and growth 198 Population size 255
Light 199 Conservation genetics 257
Water 203 The human component 257
Nutrients 203 Maintaining biological interactions 261
Coarse woody debris 206 Reserve management 262
Evergreen and deciduous leaves 207 Education and capacity building 262
Concluding remarks 209 Concluding remarks 262
Chapter 11 Silvicultural systems 210 References and general reading 264
Peter Savill and Nick Brown
Introduction 210 Index 279
Ecological principles in forest
regeneration 210
5
Preface
A grove of sequoias [Sequoiodendron Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment
giganteum] – occupy an area of perhaps less while sitting under the bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa),
than a hundred acres – The perfect specimens while ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) is almost extinct in the
not burned or broken are singularly regular and wild of China but has survived as a sacred tree in
symmetrical – showing infinite variety in general temple gardens.
unity and harmony; the noble shafts with rich Sadly, for the last century or more, such respect
purplish brown fluted bark, free of limbs for one for trees has generally been forsaken. Today,
hundred and fifty feet or so, ornamented here environmentally detrimental logging and forest
and there with leafy rosettes; main branches of clearances still continue, either illegally or by official
the oldest trees very large, crooked and rugged, connivance, driven by world population growth,
zigzagging stiffly outward seemingly lawless, yet industrialization, market globalization, and the
unexpectedly stooping at the right distance from pursuit of maximal (but patently unsustainable)
the trunk and dissolving in dense bossy masses commercial profits.
of branchlets, thus making a regular though The principal aim of this present volume is to
greatly varied outline, – a cylinder of leafy, bring together and review a number of features of
outbulging spray masses, terminating in a noble forests, trees, their development, natural environ-
dome, that may be recognised while yet far off ments, and ecology, which are usually disparately
upheaved against the sky – the king of all considered. These topics are expertly treated by
conifers, not only in size but in sublime majesty scientists from various countries and presented in a
of behaviour and port. format in which, as an integral part of each chapter,
(John Muir, My First Summer in the numerous high-quality colour illustrations comple -
Sierra, September 17th 1869) ment the concise but clearly written text.
This Guide will be of importance and interest to
A reverence and respect for trees, such as are anyone studying plant science, forestry, or ecology
exhibited in Muir’s scientific but beautiful prose and of practical and theoretical use to conserva-
describing his experiences in the Californian Sierra tionists, foresters, tree propagators, and tree surgeons
Nevada is deeply embedded in the human psyche. A working in the field. The 16 contributing authors,
sacred oak (Quercus) was at the centre of the Greek based in Britain, the USA, Australia, and Italy, reflect
oracle at Dodona founded in about 1800 BP; while a wealth of expertise, which will help ensure that this
Artemis, the goddess of woodlands, and Apollo (her volume is of value and use for students and interested
twin brother) were said to be born under a date amateurs in countries throughout the world.
palm. For the Pehuenche Amerindians of Chile, the
monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana) is holy, Bryan G Bowes
6
Contributors
Chapters 1 and 6 Chapter 8
BRYAN G BOWES STEPHEN WOODWARD
Formerly at the Department of Botany, School of Biological Sciences,
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
Chapter 2 Chapter 9
ALJOS FARJON CLAIRE OZANNE
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, School of Human and Life Sciences,
Surrey, UK Roehampton University, London, UK
Chapter 3 Chapter 10
HUGH ANGUS PETER A THOMAS
Head of Tree Collections, Westonbirt Arboretum, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, UK
near Tetbury, Gloucestershire, UK
Chapter 11
Chapter 4 PETER SAVILL
STEPHEN D HOPPER Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Surrey, UK
NICK BROWN
ERIKA PIGNATTI WIKUS Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant
Dipartimento di Biologia, Universita di Trieste, Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Trieste, Italy
Chapter 12
SANDRO PIGNATTI DAVID THORMAN
Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Rostrevor, Station Road, Whittington, Oswestry,
Universita di Roma ‘La Sapienza’, Roma, Italy Shropshire, UK
Chapters 5 and 14 Chapter 13
GHILLEAN T PRANCE BRENT H MCCOWN
School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading, Professor, Department of Horticulture,
Whiteknights, Reading, UK University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,
Wisconsin, USA
Chapter 7
CHRISTOPHER T BRETT THOMAS BEUCHEL
Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, McKay Nursery, Waterloo, Wisconsin, USA
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
7
Abbreviations
BP before present PGA polygalacturonic acid
B.t. Bacillus thuringiensis PME pectin methyl esterase
B.t.k Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki PRPs pathogenesis-related proteins
CWD coarse woody debris REGUA Reserva Ecologica Guapi-açú
RG-I rhamnogalacturonan-I
DED Dutch elm disease RG-II rhamnogalacturonan-II
DON dissolved organic nitrogen
SMS selective management system
E east
W west
HRGPs hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins
TDF temperate deciduous forest
IBA indolebutyric acid TEF temperate evergreen forest
IUCN International Union for Conservation of TSS tropical shelterwood system
Nature
IPM integrated pest management Note: all sectioned specimens were photographed
under the light microscope except where
MUS Malayan Uniform System designated TEM (transmission electron
MVP minimum viable population micrograph). Abbreviations: LS, longitudinal
mya million years ago section; RLS, radial longitudinal section;
TS, transverse section; TLS, tangential
NEP net ecosystem productivity longitudinal section.
NPP net primary productivity
8
Dedications
To the Editor’s family
With great love to my dear, supportive, and forbearing wife Diane; in warm memory of my late wife Ruth;
with all love and affection for our children Tanya and Adrian; and to my six bright, creative, and
affectionate grandchildren – Sean, Aidan, Declan, Cian, Myles, and Marcus.
To William Shakespeare
The quality of mercy is not strain’d;
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest:
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes.
’Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown;
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
The attribute to awe and majesty,
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings;
But mercy is above this sceptred sway,
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings,
It is an attribute to God himself
(The Merchant of Venice)
9
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO WOODY HABITAT
CHAPTER 1
Survey of trees: their
global significance,
architecture, and
early evolution
Bryan G Bowes
INTRODUCTION role of trees in the complex web of life.
Most trees – apart from those growing in According to Jane (1970), there are some 20,000
plantations, horticulture, arboreta, parks, or urban species of woody plants but, more recently, Oldfield
settings – are distributed in various biomes, or major et al. (1998) estimated that there are possibly up to
regions, of the terrestrial world (1; Packham et al., 100,000 tree (arborescent) species: these were
1992). Each biome is characterized by its own range defined as single-stemmed species growing to at least
of animal and plant life. Chapters 2–5 of this Guide 2 m in height at maturity. However, this definition
consider the various natural regions populated by seems unduly restrictive, since it would apparently
trees, while Chapters 10 and 14 emphasize the vital exclude some natural multi-stemmed species of
1 Overview of the Blue Mountains Eucalyptus 1
forest near Sydney, Australia. This forest is
dominated by eucalypts, with some 90 arborescent
species of Eucalyptus and other members of the
family Myrtaceae occurring here.