Trauma and Transformation: Growing in the Aftermath of Suffering

177 Pages·1995·10.507 MB·English

by  Richard G. Tedeschi, Lawrence G. Calhoun

TRAUMA
&
Transformation
For Mary Lynne, Eliza, and Mary Laura. The joys of my life.
L. G. C.
For Joan, Michael, and my parents, for all they have given.
R. G. T.
i stMJlt/IÄ
TVansformation
Growing in the
Aftermath of Suffering
Richard G. Tedeschi
Lawrence G. Calhoun
j^vSAGE Publications
,JL) International Educational and Professional Publisher
$^55 ' Thousand Oaks London New Delhi
Copyright © 1995 by Sage Publications, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tedeschi, Richard G.
Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering
/ Richard G. Tedeschi, Lawrence G. Calhoun.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8039-5256-2 (alk. paper).—ISBN 0-8039-5257-0 (pbk.:
alk. paper)
1. Suffering. 2. Life change events—Psychological aspects.
3. Adjustment (Psychology) 4. Self-actualization (Psychology)
I. Title.
BF789.S8T 1995
155.9'3—dc20 95-11803
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
99 10 9 8 7 6 5 43
Sage Production Editor: Tricia K. Bennett
Sage Typesetter: Andrea D. Swanson
Cover Illustration: Dawn Anderson
CONTENTS
Preface ix
1. The Uses of Suffering: Religious and
Psychological Roots 1
Tragedy in Philosophy and Literature 2
Religious Views of Suffering 5
Psychological Views of Suffering 10
Plan for This Book 13
2. The Negative Consequences of Trauma 15
What Makes Events Traumatic? 16
The Negative Impact of Traumatic Events 19
Negative Psychological Effects 19
Physical Problems and Complaints 24
Life Stress and Psychiatric Disorder 25
Does Time Heal All Wounds? 26
Is There a Positive Side? 28
3. Psychological Growth From Trauma:
Research Findings 29
Perceived Changes in Self: Self-Reliance
and Vulnerability 30
Increased Self-Reliance and Personal Strength 30
Recognition and Appreciation of Vulnerability 33
A Changed Sense of Relationship With Others 34
Self-Disclosure and Emotional Expressiveness 35
Compassion, Empathy, and Effort in Relationships 36
A Changed Philosophy of Life 37
Conclusions 40
4. Personality Characteristics and Successful Coping 43
Locus of Control 44
Self-Efficacy 45
Optimism 46
Hardiness 48
Resilience 49
Sense of Coherence 52
The "Big Five" Personality Factors 53
Creative Copers: Common Themes 55
5. Tasks and Cognitive Processes in Coping With Trauma 59
Rumination 60
Making the Crisis Manageable 61
Primary and Secondary Control 62
Use of Religious Beliefs 64
Vicarious Learning 64
Downward Social Comparisons 65
Reducing Emotional Distress 66
Making the Crisis Comprehensible 67
Schemas: Basic Assumptions About Life 67
Traumas as Challenges to Schemas 69
Finding That Life Continues to Be Meaningful 71
Religious Routes to Meaning 72
Benefits of Religious Meanings 74
Conclusions 75
6. How Growth Happens: A Model for Coping
With Trauma 77
Principle 1: Growth Occurs When Schemas Are
Changed by Traumatic Events 78
Principle 2: Certain Assumptions Are More
Resistant to Disconfirmation by Any Events,
and Therefore Reduce Possibilities for Schema
Change and Growth 81
Principle 3: The Reconstrual After Trauma Must
Include Some Positive Evaluation for Growth
to Occur 82
Principle 4: Different Types of Events Are Likely
to Produce Different Types of Growth 83
Principle 5: Personality Characteristics Are Related
to Possibility for Growth 84
Principle 6: Growth Occurs When the Trauma
Assumes a Central Place in the Life Story 85
Principle 7: Wisdom Is a Product of Growth 86
Summary of Principles of Growth 87
A General Model for Personal Growth Resulting
From Trauma 88
7. Support and Intervention 93
The Role of Friends and Family 94
Mutual Help 97
Professional Help 100
Supporting Self-Perceptions of Benefits and Growth 101
Respectful Intervention 102
Is the Client Ready for Growth? 104
Using the Survivor's Belief System 106
Narrative Development 108
Conclusions 110
8. Research Directions 113
Unanswered Questions 114
Person Variables 114
Situational Variables 117
The Validity of Personal Experience 118
Which Perspective and Which Methods? 121
Qualitative Approaches 122
Quantitative Approaches 123
A Research Strategy 125
9. Guideposts for People Challenged by Trauma 127
Experience Is the Teacher 128
A Willingness to Accept and Endure 128
The Challenge Perspective 129
Searching for Humor 130
Needing and Serving Others 130
An Active Search for the Gains in the Losses 132
Readings in Transformation 133
Conclusions 137
Appendix: The Post Traumatic Growth Inventory 139
References 143
Index 161
About the Authors 163
PREFACE
This volume is an attempt to weave together material from various
writings in philosophy, religion, and especially psychology to account
for a phenomenon that has been recognized since ancient times but
given little attention by psychologists: the experience of personal
growth or strengthening that often occurs in persons who have faced
traumatic events. We use an essentially cognitive framework to ex-
plain this experience because changes in belief systems seem to be so
often reported by persons who describe their growth, and these beliefs
appear to play a central role in relieving emotional distress and
encouraging useful activity.
Although both of us have experienced traumatic events in our lives,
we are personally unfamiliar with many of the events mentioned in
this book. Our teachers have been the clients with whom we have
worked as clinicians, and the people who have agreed to talk with us,
sometimes for hours, as part of our research studies in this area. It is
to these people we owe the greatest debt. They have not only informed
us as psychologists, but made us more sensitive to the struggles and
victories of those who have been most painfully touched by life.
We hope that we have presented information in a way that is
accessible to clinicians, laypersons, and especially in Chapter 9, other
people who have experienced trauma. We have also tried to summa-
rize a far-flung literature and describe a way of understanding the
process of growth that will encourage more attention from researchers.
In addition, we believe that this book can be used as a supplementary
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