Transportation and Behavior

294 Pages·1981·30.828 MB·English

by  Irwin Altman, Joachim F. Wohlwill, Peter B. Everett (auth.), Irwin Altman, Joachim F. Wohlwill, Peter B. Everett (eds.)

Transportation
and Behavior
Human Behavior
and Environment
ADVANCES IN THEORY AND RESEARCH
Volume 1
Volume 2
Volume 3: Children and the Environment
Volume 4: Environment and Culture
Volume 5: Transportation and Behavior
Transportation
and Behavior
EDITED BY
IRWIN ALTMAN
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL
AND
PETER B. EVERETT
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Human behavior and environment.
Vol. 5 edited by I. Altman, J.F. Wohlwill, and P. Everett.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
PARTIAL CONTENTS: v. 3. Children and the environmen!.-v. 4. Environ
ment and culture.-v. 5. Transportation and behavior.
1. Environmental psychology-Collected works. I. Altman, Irwin. II. Wohlwill,
Joachim F. III. Everett, Peter B. (Peter Ben), 1943-
BF353.H85 304.2 76-382942
ISBN 978-1-4684-4003-4 ISBN 978-1-4684-4001-0(eBook) AACR1
DOl 10,1007/978-1-4684-4001-0
© 1981 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 198 I
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Articles Planned for Volume 6
BEHAVIOR AND THE
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Editors: Irwin Altman and Joachim F. Wohlwill
Social and Behavioral Aspects of the Carrying Capacity of
Natural Environments
WILLIAM R. CATTON, JR.
Methodological Issues in the Assessment of Visual Landscape Quality
TERRY C. DANIEL
Wilderness and Recreation Resource Management Issues
and Research Needs
B. L. DRIVER AND PERRY J. BROWN
The Role of Nature in the Urban Context
RACHEL KAPLAN
Psychological Benefits of a Wilderness Experience
STEPHEN KAPLAN AND JANET FREY
Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Animals
STEPHEN R. KELLERT
Recreational Needs and Behavior in Natural Settings
RICHARD C. KNOPF
The Concept of Nature: A Psychologist's View
JOACHIM F. WOHLWILL
Aesthetic and Affective Response to the Natural Environment
ROGER S. ULRICH
v
Contributors
MARK BALDASSARE· Sociology Department and Center for the Social
Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York
PETER B. EVERETT· Program in Man-Environment Relations, The
Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylvania
DAVID T. HARTGEN· Transportation Data and Analysis, New York State
Department of Transportation, Albany, New York
IRwIN P. LEVIN • Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa
City, Iowa
LYNN G. LLEWELLYN· Division of Program Plans, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
JORDAN J. LOUVIERE· Department of Marketing, University of Iowa, Iowa
City, Iowa
RICHARD M. MICHAELS· Urban Transportation Center, University of
Illinois at Chicago Circle, Chicago, Illinois
RAYMOND W. NOVACO· Program in Social Ecology, University of Cali
fornia, Irvine, California
RICHARD A. OLSEN· Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Sunny
vale, California
DANIEL STOKOLS. Program in Social Ecology, University of California,
Irvine, California
vii
Preface
The present volume in our series, Human Behavior and Environment, is
devoted to a specific topic, continuing the pattern established in the last
two volumes. The current theme is behavioral science aspects of trans
portation. This topic was chosen to exemplify a problem area of practical
import to which psychologists, sociologists, and other behavioral and
social scientists can make and have been making notable contributions.
Our volume includes papers from a variety of psychological perspec
tives, including human factors, environmental psychology, and be
havior modification, along with other contributions from a sociologist
and a transportation engineer interested in behavioral science contribu
tions to transportation. Joining us as guest editor for this volume is Peter
Everett, an environmental psychologist whose area of specialty is the
study of behavioral components of transportation systems.
Volume 6 of our series, currently in preparation, will be devoted to
behavior and the natural environment. A provisional table of contents
for that volume appears on page v.
Irwin Altman
Joachim F. Wohlwill
Peter B. Everett
ix
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
CHAPTER 1
TRANSPORTATION AND THE BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES
DAVID T. HARTGEN
Introduction 5
Brief Overview of the Behavioral
Sciences. . . ..... . .... . . . . . . .. .... . .... . . . . . . . . . ... ... ..... . . 7
Current Transportation Issues:
Evolution and Behavioral Applications ........................ 8
Urban Transit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Rural Transit Systems ................................... 12
Transportation for the
Mobility-Limited .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Environmental and Social
Impact Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Energy and Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References ................................................. 25
xi
xii Contents
CHAPTER 2
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO TRAVEL
DEMAND MODELING
IRWIN P. LEVIN
JORDAN J. LOUVIERE
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Travel Demand Modeling: A Historical
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Behavioral Travel Modeling ...................... . . . . . . . . 31
Our Conceptualization of Behavioral
Travel Modeling ........................................ 34
Research Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Observational Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Controlled Experimental Approach ....................... 38
Quasi-Experimental Design .............................. 39
Applications of Psychological Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Semantic Differential Scaling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Category Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Thurstone Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Factor Analysis ......................................... 42
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Attitudinal Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Definition and Measurement of
Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Attitude-Behavior Relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Measurement of Qualitative
Variables ............................................... 47
Applications of Psychological Process
Theory..................................................... 48
Utility Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Functional Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Conjoint Measurement .................................. 52
Recent Developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Psychophysical Problem ............................. 53
Choice Set Analysis ..................................... 54
Choice Sets and Travel Behavior
Dynamics .............................................. 55
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Contents xiii
CHAPTER 3
REINFORCEMENT THEORY STRATEGIES FOR
MODIFYING TRANSIT RIDERSHIP
PETER B. EVERETT
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Reinforcement Theory Approach ......................... 65
Principles of Reinforcement Theory ....................... 65
A Reinforcement Theory Model of Transit Ridership. . . . . . . . 66
Changing Transit Ridership: Case Studies and Experiments . . . . . 70
Reinforcing Transit Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Removal of Punishment for Transit Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
General Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
The Future ............................................. 79
Summary................................................... 82
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
CHAPTER 4
TRANSPORTATION AND WELL-BEING:
AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
DANIEL STOKOLS
RAYMOND W. NOVACO
Introduction ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Previous Research on Transportation and Stress ............... 87
Research on Automobile Travel and Stress ................ 89
Research on Public Transit and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Limitations of Earlier Research on Transportation and Stress 94
An Ecological Analysis of Transportation and Well-Being. . . . . . . 96
Basic Tenets of an Ecological Approach to Transportation
and Well-Being. . . . . . . . .. . .... . . .. ..... .. ..... . . . ... . . . . 96
Conceptual Focuses of Research on Transportation
and Well-Being ......................................... 99