Transport in Shale Reservoirs PDF
Preview Transport in Shale Reservoirs
Transport in Shale Reservoirs KUN SANG LEE Hanyang University Seoul, South Korea TAE HONG KIM Hanyang University Seoul, South Korea ] TRANSPORTINSHALERESERVOIRS ISBN:978-0-12-817860-7 Copyright(cid:1)2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformation about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluating andusinganyinformation,methods,compoundsorexperimentsdescribedherein.Becauseofrapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosagesshouldbemade.Tothefullestextentofthelaw,noresponsibilityisassumedbyElsevier, authors,editorsorcontributorsforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterof productsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products, instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. Publisher:BrianRomer SeniorAcquisitionEditor:KatieHammon EditorialProjectManager:AliAfzal-Khan ProjectManager:PoulouseJoseph CoverDesigner:MilesHitchen 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge, MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington, Oxford,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom Preface As global energy consumption is steadily growing, the principlesinshalereservoirs,state-of-the-arttechnology hydrocarbon sources from unconventional shale reser- onthemodeling,applicationsintherealfield,andideas voirsareincreasingrapidly.Althoughtheshaleindustry forfutureresearch. has made rapid progress in recent years, there is still a Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to the topic by lackofknowledgebothinindustrialandacademicfields. tracingthedevelopmentandcurrentstatusofshaleres- Because shale reservoirs have distinctive features ervoirs.Chapter2reviewspetrophysicalcharacteristicsof different from those of conventional reservoirs, an ac- shalereservoirssuchaslithology,mineralcomposition, curate evaluation on the behavior of shale reservoirs organicmatter,poregeometry,andfracture-matrixsys- needsanintegratedunderstandingonthecharacteristics tem.Chapter3discussesmajortransportmechanismsin andtransportofreservoirandfluids.Thisbookaimsto shalereservoirsincludingnon-Darcyflow,gassorption, presentacomprehensiveandmathematicaltreatmentof moleculardiffusion,geomechanics,andphasebehavior characterizationandmodelingofshalereservoirs. in nanopores. Chapter 4 focuses on the simulation of Whileseveralbooksexistforshalegasreservoir,many shalegasandoilreservoirs.Chapter5presentsemerging of them focused on geological, economic, environ- technologiesinshalereservoirsincludingmulticompo- mental aspects. There has been a void for a compre- nenttransportintheCO injectionprocessandconsid- 2 hensivebookthatfocusesonthetransportphenomena erationoforganicmaterialinshalereservoirsimulation. throughshalereservoirs.Thisbookemphasizesallrele- Thisbookwouldneverhavebeenpublishedwithout vant aspects of petrophysical characteristics and their theableassistanceofElsevierstafffortheirpatienceand impact on transport mechanisms. The book also dis- their excellent editing job. We shall appreciate any cusses a systematic approach in the modeling of shale commentsandsuggestions. reservoirs based on the complicated transport mecha- nisms.Theauthors’desireisthattheinformationinthis KunSangLee book provides a clear presentation of the transport Seoul,Korea v Contents 1 Introduction,1 4 Simulation of Shale Reservoirs,69 2 Petrophysical Characteristics of Shale 5 Challenges of Shale Reservoir Reservoirs,7 Technologies,105 3 Specific Mechanisms in Shale Reservoirs,35 NOMENCLATURE, 133 INDEX, 137 vii This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1 Introduction ABSTRACT kerogen. CBM is natural gas contained in the coal As conventional hydrocarbon resources have depleted seam. Gas hydrate is an icelike form of crystalline and global energy consumption has grown steadily, water-based solid that contains gas molecules in its interest of unconventional resources has increased molecularcavities.Ingeneral,unconventionalresources steadily. Especially, production of shale gas and oil are more expensive and more difficult to extract and resources increases rapidly after development of process. As shown in Fig. 1.1, resources in the lower hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling techniques partofthepyramidpresentahigheramountofreserves, inNorthAmerica.Eventhoughshaleindustryhasgrown theincreaseddifficultyofproduction,andhigherdevel- dramatically, fluid flow in shale reservoirs still has not opment cost than resources in the upper part. Among beenfullyunderstood.Unconventionalshalereservoirs variousunconventionalresources,shale gas and oil are showedcomplexflowmechanismscomparedwithcon- themostcommercializedresourcessofar. ventionalreservoirs.Shalereservoirshaveintricatepetro- physical characteristics such as various lithologies and GEOLOGIC FEATURESOF SHALE mineralcomposition,organiccomponent,tinyporege- ometry,andnaturalfracturesystem,andtheyaffectfluid RESERVOIRS behavior significantly. Non-Darcy flow, adsorption/ Recently,shalereservoirshavereceivedsignificantatten- desorption, fluid flow and phase behavior change in tionbecauseoftheirpotentialtosupplytheworldwith nanoscale pores, molecular diffusion, and stress- animmenseamountofenergyandthedepletionofcon- dependent deformation should be considered for ventional reservoirs. Because shale reservoirs have evaluationoffluidflowinshalereservoirs.Foraccurate variousspecificfeaturesdifferentfromconventionalres- understanding of transport in shale reservoirs, this ervoirs, there is still a lack of understanding for them. book presents comprehensive study of petrophysical Conventional reservoirs are comprised of source rock, characteristics, transport mechanisms, and application reservoir rock, trap, and seal. In a typical source rock, infield-scalereservoirsimulation. some of the hydrocarbons are driven out and migrate intoreservoirrockunderthetraps.Inshaleoilandgas Becauseofrapiddepletionofconventionalresourcesand reservoirs, the generated hydrocarbon cannot be increaseofglobalenergyconsumption,conventionalhy- migrated,andthesourcerockitselfbecomesthereservoir drocarbon resources cannot satisfy the energy demand. rock because of its tight features. Shale is a fissile and AccordingtoWorldEnergy Outlook2017(IEA,2017), laminated sedimentary rock mainly composed of clay- global energy will expand by 30% between today and sized mineral grains. Normally, ina broad sense, shale 2040.Althoughvariousresearcheshavebeenperformed reservoir rock contains clastics (quartz, feldspars, and to develop sustainable and renewable energy, it is still micas),carbonates(calcite,dolomite,andsiderite),clay significantly expensive to be commercialized. Conse- minerals (montmorillonite, illite, smectite, and quently, unconventional oil and gas resources have kaolinite),pyrite,andtheotherminorminerals(Passey, attracted considerable attention in recent decades. Bohacs,Esch,Klimentidis,&Sinha,2010;Quireinetal., Unconventional oil and gas are hydrocarbon resources 2010;Ramirez,Klein,Ron,&Howard,2011;Sondergeld, that cannot be produced with conventional extraction Newsham, Comisky, Rice, & Rai, 2010). Especially, techniques. Fig. 1.1 shows the hydrocarbon resources black-colored shale rock includes organic matters such pyramid. Unconventional resources include tight oil, askerogenandisanessentialsourceofshaleoilandgas. shale oil, oil shale, coalbed methane (CBM), tight gas, Amount of organic materials, which indicates the shale gas, and gas hydrates. Oil shale is a rock that capacity to produce and store hydrocarbons, is signifi- includessignificantamountsoforganicmatterssuchas cantinshalereservoirs.Asaconventionalsourcerock, TransportinShaleReservoirs.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817860-7.00001-2 Copyright©2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1 2 TransportinShaleReservoirs FIG.1.1 Hydrocarbonresourcespyramid. roughly0.5%totalorganiccarbon(TOC)isconsidered (Fig. 1.2). Organic matter pores can be divided into as a minimum or threshold. For shale reservoirs, primaryorganicporesandsecondaryorganicpores.Sec- approximately2%is regarded asaminimum TOCfor ondary organic matter pores also can be divided into commercialproduction,anditmayexceed10%e12% organic matter bubble and spongy pores. Inorganic in some reservoirs. Kerogen types are primarily classi- porescanbedividedintointerparticleandintraparticle fied into four categories (Tissot &Welte, 1984). Based mineral pores. The pore size of shale reservoirs ranges onthecharacter,elementalcontents,anddepositional from nanometers to micrometers. The complexity of environments of kerogens, kerogens are classified to pore geometry and fracture networks significantly types I, II, III, and IV. Investigation of these kerogen affectsthebehaviorofhydrocarboninshalereservoirs. types is important to understand the processes of Understanding of geologic features of shale rock is an storage, retention, and release of hydrocarbons. importantprerequisiteforanalysisoftransportinshale Commonly, oil is produced from shale reservoir con- reservoirs. taining kerogen types I and II, and gas is produced from a reservoir containing kerogen type III. Thermal maturity, which indicates maximum temperature exposureofrockandextentoftemperature-time-driven reactions, is another critical parameter in shale reser- voirs. The organic materials whose vitrinite reflectance is lower than 0.65%R are considered as immature o organicmatters(Mani,Patil,&Dayal,2015).Thermally matureorganicmatters,whichpresent0.6%e1.35%R o of vitrinite reflectance, commonly produce oil. The postmatureorganicmaterials,whichshowhigherthan 1.5%R of vitrinite reflectance, generate wet and dry o gas(Manietal.,2015;Tissot&Welte,1984). Unconventionalshalereservoirsalsoshowcomplex pore geometry because of various lithology, mineral composition, and organic matters. Pore networks of shale formations consist of organic matter pores, FIG.1.2 Viewoforganicandinorganicmattersandnatural inorganic material pores, and natural fracture system fractureinshalereservoirs.
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