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PERIODIC TABLE ELEMENTS OF THE Transition Metals PERIODIC TABLE ELEMENTS OF THE Transition Metals Monica Halka, Ph.D., and Brian Nordstrom, Ed.D. TRANSITION METALS Copyright © 2011 by Monica Halka, Ph.D., and Brian Nordstrom, Ed.D. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Halka, Monica. Transition metals / Monica Halka and Brian Nordstrom. p. cm. — (Periodic table of the elements) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8160-7371-9 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4381-3401-7 (e-book) 1. Transition metals. 2. Periodic law. I. Nordstrom, Brian II. Title. QD172.T6H35 2011 546'.6—dc22 2009054139 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Excerpts included herewith have been reprinted by permission of the copyright holders; the author has made every effort to contact copyright holders. The publishers will be glad to rectify, in future editions, any errors or omissions brought to their notice. Text design by Erik Lindstrom Composition by Hermitage Publishing Services Illustrations by Dale Williams Photo research by Tobi Zausner, Ph.D. Cover printed by Sheridan Books, Inc. Book printed and bound by Sheridan Books, Inc. Date printed: September 2010 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents Preface viii Acknowledgments xii Introduction xiv Overview: Chemistry and Physics Background xix 1 The Scandium Group 1 Th e Astrophysics of Scandium and Yttrium 3 Discovery and Naming of Scandium and Yttrium 4 Th e Chemistry of Scandium and Yttrium 6 Th e Rare Earth Connection 7 Scandium and Espionage 8 Scandium Strengthens Aluminum Alloys 9 Technology and Current Uses of the Scandium Group 10 2 The Titanium and Vanadium Groups 12 Th e Astrophysics of the Titanium Group: Ti, Zr, Hf 14 Discovery and Naming of Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium 16 Th e Chemistry of the Titanium Group 17 Titanium in the Aerospace Industry 21 Zirconium in Aluminum Alloys 23 Hafnium Can Replace Silicon in Transistors 24 Technology and Current Uses of the Titanium Group 25 Th e Astrophysics of the Vanadium Group: V, Nb, Ta 28 Discovery and Naming of Vanadium, Niobium, and Tantalum 31 The Chemistry of the Vanadium Group 32 Reducing the Size of Particle Accelerators 36 Triniobium Tin in Superconducting Magnets 37 Technology and Current Uses of the Vanadium Group 39 3 The Chromium and Manganese Groups 40 The Astrophysics of the Chromium Group: Cr, Mo, W 42 Discovery and Naming of Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten 43 The Geology of the Chromium Group 45 The Chemistry of the Chromium Group 46 Chromium and the Magnetism of Stainless Steel 50 Tungsten’s Use in Munitions 52 Discovering the Hazards of Chromium in Drinking Water 54 Technology and Current Uses of the Chromium Group 55 The Astrophysics of the Manganese Group: Mn, Tc, Re 56 Discovery and Naming of Manganese, Technetium, and Rhenium 59 The Chemistry of the Manganese Group 62 Technology and Current Uses of the Manganese Group 67 4 The Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Groups 68 The Astrophysics of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 71 Discovery and Naming of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 74 The Iron Age 75 The Chemistry of Iron 77 The Chemistry of Cobalt 80 Cobalt: The Distinctive Blue 81 The Chemistry of Nickel 83 Technology and Current Uses of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 84 The Platinum Metals 85 The Astrophysics of the Platinum Metals: Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt 86 Discovery and Naming of the Platinum Metals 90 The Chemistry of the Platinum Metals 92 Technology and Current Uses of the Platinum Metals 92 Palladium and Cold Fusion 93 5 The Copper Group 96 The Astrophysics of the Copper Group: Cu, Ag, Au 99 A History of Coinage 100 The Chemistry of Copper 103 The Chemistry of Silver 105 The Chemistry of Gold 106 The Rush for Gold 107 Hard-Rock Mining: The Environmental Costs 108 Technology and Current Uses of Copper 110 Technology and Current Uses of Silver 111 Technology and Current Uses of Gold 111 6 The Zinc Group 113 The Astrophysics of the Zinc Group: Zn, Cd, Hg 118 Discovery and Naming of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 119 A Famed Mythology 120 The Chemistry of Zinc 120 The Chemistry of Cadmium 123 The Chemistry of Mercury 124 Environmental Mercury Risks 125 Technology and Current Uses of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 126 7 Conclusions and Future Directions 129 Speculations on Further Developments 129 New Physics 130 New Chemistry 131 SI Units and Conversions 134 List of Acronyms 136 Periodic Table of the Elements 137 Table of the Elements Categories 138 Chronology 139 Glossary 147 Further Resources 167 General Resources 173 Index 179 Preface S peculations about the nature of matter date back to ancient Greek philosophers like Th ales, who lived in the sixth century b.c.e., and Democritus, who lived in the fi ft h century b.c.e., and to whom we credit the fi rst theory of atoms. It has taken two and a half millennia for natural philosophers and, more recently, for chemists and physicists to arrive at a modern understanding of the nature of elements and com- pounds. By the 19th century, chemists such as John Dalton of England had learned to defi ne elements as pure substances that contain only one kind of atom. It took scientists like the British physicists Joseph John Th omson and Ernest Rutherford in the early years of the 20th century, however, to demonstrate what atoms are—entities composed of even smaller and more elementary particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Th ese particles give atoms their properties and, in turn, give elements their physical and chemical properties. Aft er Dalton, there were several attempts throughout Western Europe to organize the known elements into a conceptual framework that would account for the similar properties that related groups of elements exhibit and for trends in properties that correlate with increases in atomic weights. Th e most successful periodic table of the elements was designed in 1869 by a Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev. Men- deleev’s method of organizing the elements into columns grouping elements with similar chemical and physical properties proved to be so practical that his table is still essentially the only one in use today. viii PPrreeffaaccee ix The Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table of the elements in the late 1800s. (HIP/Art Resource)