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— TRANSFORMING Michael Balich^ J. ETHNOBOTANY FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM' ABSTHAC/r In the several decades, the science of ethnobotany has evol\ed from a discipline primarily concerned with })ust making among lists of useful [>lanls in a particular geographic region or an individual tribe, to a multidisciplinary endeavor focused on understanding the relationshij) between plants and [>eople. Ethnobotanists are involved in proj<»cts ranging from conununity level germplasm conservation to multinational biiMliversily prospecting. One result of the renewed intert'sl and activity in ethnobotany has been the increased public awareness of this brancli of biological science. Several projects utilizing the conlemporar)' ethnobotanical paradigm arc discussed, including in-situ germplasm conservation in the western United States, ethnobotanical market surveys in Mexico, the management and use of Sahal palm resources in Mexic(», (piantitalive studies in the Neotrop>ics. and ethnopharmacologieal studies linked to drug development in Samoa. Thi* Belize Ethnobotany Project's midtidisciplinary a[»proach to the study and conservation of traditional medicines and the development of an ethno-biomedical forest reserve in Belize arc also reviewed. Contem- porary ethnobotanical studies have value not only for the research questions they address, but as a way of catalyzing awareness of the value of biological diversity and support for its conservation among a l)r(>ad range of peoj»le. Thr term etbnobolany was proposed western United was one in a lee- States, also of bot- first llie first ture by John Harshberger to a{)j)ly to the study of anists to investigate tlie cultural signifieanee of "plants used by primitive and aboriginal people plants to indigenous people through bis fieldwork ." (Anonymous, 1895). This initial concept of (Palmer, 1871, 1878). Prior to tbe above-mentioned . . etbnobotanlcal investigation was typified in a paper end(»avors, other investigators studied use of llie by Waller Fewkes (1896), "A Contribution to plants by North American Indigenous peoples, of- J. Elbnobolany," in whicli be wrote of tlie work of his ten focusing on tbe medicinal values that lln^se student G. Owens, wlio initiated a study on tbe conferred. Ford (1978) calculated that a total of 904 J. fi)ods and food resources of tbe Hopi Indians. In studies bad been pul)lisbed on native North Amer- ibis wbieb was published after Owens's lean ethnobotany before 1977. i)aper, Fewkes death, wrott^ about their collaborative en- In tbe past several decades, the nature of eth- deavurs, presenting a list of tbe conunon names and nobotanical investigation bt^gan to chatige, becutn- uses of several dozen fi)od species, and stating, ing more focused on studies of the relationship be- ''I simply wish to call attention to tbe interesting field Iween plants and people in tbe broadest sens(% and of ethttobotany which the Hopi Indians furnish the employing multidisciplinary perspectives. Exam- ethnologist. Tliis work reflecMs the style in which pies include the study of Berlin ct al. (1974), which — early ethnobotanical studies were undertaken combined botanical, linguistic, and utilization in- compiling of ciMumon and Latin names of formation, and that of Schultes and Hoffman lists plants used by an indigemous group. which united ethnimtedicine and phyto- (1973), EUorts j)r<*vious to that time were carried out un- clHMnisti7. The emergetue of ethnobotany as a mul- der tbe heading of "aboriginal botany," a term tidisciplinary science, springing forth from foun- its eoiru^d by Slev<Mi Powers (1873-1875) to incdude dation in systematic botany, has resulted in fcfcall iorms of the vegetable world which the aborig- interesting and important research (juestions that used ines m(Mli<'ine, food, textile fabrics, orna- are being addn^ssed. This '*new" ethnobotany links fi>r Edward who ments, etc." L. Palmer, a botanist diverse ilisci[)lines, such as anthropology, botany, made comprebensive descripti(»ns of the flora of the rnitrition, ecology, conservation, eeonorm'cs. and am Boom, grateful to l^rian Robert A. Bye, Javi<'r Cahailero, Paul Cox, Edelmira Linares, Steven Smith, and ^ 1 Jr., who Daiiiela Soleri for providing nie witli information on their researcli. lliank the traditional healers have collaborated I mv with in the Belize Ethnttbotany Project and alloweil ine to îve voice to their endeavors. Rosita Arvigo and C»regory my Shropshire iA \\ CAuA Tropical Kesearch Foundation have been valued companions in Belize, and we are grat<'ful many to our Iriends and supporters of this project. Jay Walker was verj' kind to prepare Figure I, as was Elizabeth Pecchia typing the mamiscript. in ^ Director and i'liilecohi^) Curator of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Economic New liotany, Bronx, York 10458-5126, U.S.A. Ann. Missouri Bot. Card. 83: 38-06. 1996. Volume Number 83, Balick 59 1 1996 Transforming Ethnobotany phamiacology, in a way lliat generate^s new ways of changes in tlie soeioeconoinie and/or biophysical thinking and a style of scholarship. Work(M*s in environment. iiew^ much this i'wM also recognize the need to take a Sol(Mi and Smith (1995) investigated the results more active role in ad(h'essing important issues of of conserving two Hopi folk varieties of Zea rnays USDA human such germplasm program and by society as hio(hversity conservation, L. in a (ex situ) food shortage, and the developmtnit of new medi- traditional farmers They tested three hy- (in situ). Ex cines. Contem[)orar}^ elhnobotanists are also raising potheses: ''1) situ consen'ation of populations of concerns about the ethical implications of their re- a maize folk variety results in significant changes — search endeavors for example, who should share to those populations; 2) TIkmc iwv no significant in benefits of new^ discoveries such as ukmH- differences between populations of a maize folk va- tlu' cines foods from plants (Boom, 1990; Cumiing- lit^ty maintained by H()j)i farmers tiulay; and 3) <»r Then^ between ham, 1993; Axt ah, 1993). They an^ also forging are significant differences a folk va- et maintained by farming househohls closer ties with goveniment and private sector re- riety in situ to- 1 and same maintained search groups working develop new food, drug, <lay the folk variety ex situ to hy an conservation program." Working and institutional en<M-gy resources. Orn^ impoilant aspect of this measured renaissance in the field of ethnobotany has been with two traditional corn varit^ties. they significant changes in morphological characters the increased level of public interest in this sub- Through documentaries, movies, ûch as anther color, glume color, glume bar, plant ject. ti^h^vision height, and central spike length. They concluded magazine and articles, radio intervi<*ws, tlu re- ^ that, in terms of meeting the needs of traditional search of ethnobotanists is being us<m1 to illustiate concern and agriculture, the greatest for traditional va- the importanc(^ of biodiversity conservation. its "may conserved using ex technology be rieties situ in promoting objectives proposed by Syslem- th<* chang(\s during conseiTation resulting from ge- atics Agenda sev^ms obvious that cuiTcnt tlu^ 2()()(), it mnic compared as with genetic I'he shift researc-h topics In ethnol)otany can attrat:t the at- drift.''' collected the second stM^nuMl to hyi>oth(^sis tention of imi>ortant constituencies whose thinking ''^^^^ t<'st to indicate that tluê were no diflcrences between we wish infiuence. U) Zeu mays maintained [)opulatInns of a folk variety This paper will highlight examples of re- llit* by contcmporar)' Hopi farmers. Based on their data. search undertaken by contemporaiy activiti(*s eth- h()w<we.. llu-y mîlher accepted n.n n'ji^cted the hy- sun.inarize several papers pre- n()l)()taiiists. It will instead. con.l.Hled thai further re- ^""'^ sented a recent me.-ling of the Society for P'"^'*^^''^ at search would be required. The third hynotliesis, rL^.conomi•c rL?soItanv .t1fiat4 piovi• d1e e^ xampl1es olr act.-ive * ^' ' same between suggesting significant differences the and ethnobotany field- laboratory-ori<Mited projects. folk variety cons(*r\êd in two diff<M-cnl ways, was as well as the author^s eflorts in Belize. accepted. Despite the technical difficulties in test- hypotheses was ing these clear that invarialile tlu' it CONSKKVATION Gt:KMI'I.ASM maintenance of material utilizing situ consigna- e.v tion mctlnHls nearly impossible and thai the is tvv(» Recently, concern has been expr<»ssed that ex conservation strat<'gies yield difh*nMit results, de- may germplasm consenation be situ not sufficient manding a reconsideration crop genetic of re- for {)reserving the genetic integrity of selected crop Work and sources. c*)nservation goals, assumj)tions. specn'cs or [hv ph^hora of landraces cultivated by .„„] ^^,^.i^ .^^ ,1,.,^ l^^^j^^ ^1^^^,^ |,y g^î^j^j 5,,^;,),^ ;,,_ Crop found traditional peoples. plant relatives in corporal ing the ethnobotanical perspective into the wild are also at risk, litis (1971) suggested that germplasm conservation, is clearly in the forefront in situ consenation was an important adjunct for am of efforts presf^ne crop g<M7nplasm and will, t(» I A consenation crop combination ex of plants. situ help reshape a great deal of the ^.^rtain, fiiturt now oi both strategies is s(mmi as desirable, in order on think in" this topic, maximum amount ensure preservation of the of to Ex consenation g(Mietic diversity. situ activities MaIIKKT Sll^DIES have trone far beyond the intention of senin^r only crop brefulers; such materials an* s(Mm as valuable and and Linares By(* (1987) [heir i-olleagu^^s at for supporting low-input traditional agricultural the Jardfn Botanico, Universidad Nacional Auton- systems and insuring their capacity to recover from oma dc Mexico, have carried out exhaustive sur- natural disasters, as well as restoring the g(Mietic veys of market plants in Mexico since the 198()s. diversity of crop varieties in traditional systems in studies, mostly focusing on nuMlicinal and ed- I'heir areas where this diversity has bet^n lost due to ible plants, have involves work with traditional 1 7 60 Annals of the Garden Missouri Botanical healers, uiedical doctors, IumIj vendors, fanners. Tahlr 1. P(TrtMila^<* of usi^ful species (in all calegories and specified) per lieclare plot to the iruligenous groups stiul- botanists, edncators, local prottioters. licaltli Linarcs and Bye (1987) conipanul nuulicinal herbs ^™- =^= and Mexico sohl in the rtiarkets of central noillieni Percentage of useful those sold the southwcsteni United States and to in tree species from gnmp foinid local ptoplc plants folk "eoni- tliat inl(» hidigenous group inventor)' sites common plexes'^ of specMes that share namt*s, mor- Ka'apor 76.8 pliological and aromatic characteristics, as well as 6L.H 'fenih^ known nses. For example, the cômplex in this geo- ho Chile a 78. graphic region as ^'hirrha anfs^" (M^mpris(Ml several 48.6 l*anare genera {Tagetes Artemisia Pimpinella ami L., L., L., Source: Prance (P^B7) et al. Illiriuni L.), all with tin* characteristii- odor of anise. One observation from this study that each of the is four eomph^xes of plants investigated was "labeled »i 95% w and tree sp<'cies of the individual trees w by choosing an individual plant species consid(M(ul u ..i. *i •• • among ^ utilized. Balee conlniuedi .tihis worki .i Itie I- the most val1 uabl1 e within tIhe compl1ex. Each partic- v r d in ' ' Ra * apor aiuii ^lr emhi e' lr n(iians oir nrazili, and nooin be ular ""label" phuil tendtMl to sohl far outside of j- u ' ilat. er st. udiedi .tihe i>anare oir \VrenezucMia; .tihe results I natural range, and local plants were often sub- its /n ino^^x ^ summari-zed» • t- i IvoO. '^ are in lahi li e i (rrance et. ali.. , , The sliluted during times was unavailable. la- ^' it -yihei•r concli usi* ons i* ndii-<*al. e a particul^ ar needi rtor „ I . . beled complex was plant for the 'iiierha anfs^^ n ZJ/i^f- consening r -r t ' pli ant, lamihes, suchi as ali mae, lêcy- * I . , m eles lucida Cav. Tn this study the authors sug^gested n\ ,i -^ Itiiidaceae*, Lhrysobi alianaceae, andi Malipighi iaceae, . . that plants categorized as such are considered most a .i* v ^ r '. that. an* utiIiz(Mii ext. ensi• veli y ir>y »titiese tour indig(*- , complex effective, wh(^nâs tlu^ otln'r plants in the nous groups, as well as the terra firme forest, in are given secondary status. which most of the useful species These stud- oc(*ur. Using results o( Linares and Bye and similar /. *r c r ^ '• ^'^ Wf^re .tihe hrst. at*.tempt to quantity *tihe vali ue ol ,. ^ studies, t^he staf^.f^. of t,he JI ard,i.n rB*otd.ni. co ,has b, ei^n the forest to Indigenous p<'opl(^ and thus argue for able implement public education nro";rams ^ to cons<M'vat.•ion ibasedi on .tihe p(Tcent*ag(M)lr speci• es Its aimed , . . . at incn'asing the level of botanical literacy. used locallv. Each weeks m year, sptnial are st4 aside to focus on ^\()rking in Tambopata, Peru, with iiK^stizo pco- \ medicine, and individual up Iradiliiuial h<»alcrs set ni ii^ ^^ /irwv> piie, Inllips andi i/entr)" (IW.ni)\ proposedi a now * 1 stalls in the garden to advise the public on the us<»s method quantitat for ethnobolanical studies. of me<licinal plants. Tlu-re an' also special work- ti irr r ' Ihey s*tudii- edi .tree pli ot»s i• n seven dilierent. lorest * . shops on mtulici.na.l . of M<*\ico g(*ared toward [)laiils r/ ^r* .types in a .tot. ali ot 0.1i hi ect.ares, r amiti y use vaiiu(*s ' . ,. . those interested in alternative medicine. In addi- were cahulated constmr- for plants t^mploytnl for ti<»n, the gardi'ii pnimotes the use of edible plants r ,- r ^ tion, in comnn^rce, foodi, .tecihnoliogy, andi medicine. * , . . Mexican , One was n of origin. pn)ject a series of Km*- ni ir ^ iUtsi• ng .tihe same diat. a set., liillips and» Ueiitiy 1 1- 1 . on tures the botany, history, culinaiT preparation, /innoi\ rill 11 (lVv.5!)) ipies.t*ionedi whi et.hi er .i age r t.ihe m• lror- th(^ oi -^ ^ and^ other aspects of fuhl)le greens, both nutritit)!!, mant had any on his/her knowh^lge of plant cfitH't wild and cultivated, fhe j)ublic was invit(Ml to sam- use. They found that in sonn' use categories, sucii and pie these species, a publication with botanical r .i r»i r r 3^ nuMlicn• iali pli ant lore, ti ihuliik oi the n• iiormation tlit^ , „ informati. on and . was . , The nH'ip<'s issued. staff of the held by oId(T people, and suggested areas is that Jardfn Botiinico used ethnof)0tany communicate to such as this should be main thrust of ethno- tb<* imixirtant messages about biological (liversitv. n Its ^ li )o,lani• caii st, udii- es andi conservati• on ^ Ôit.iiier - ei toils. .' Y . . and utilization conservation, to the public. m c m* ai ^ s»tudjent*s • *tihi• s helidi, suchi as Migueli Alexi• adies and Ana IrtMic Balis, are currently uiuh^rtaking fichl- ETHNOUorXNY QirANTTTATUL: work that us<»s the quantitative approach in etli- seems nobotany. apparent that a quantitative ap- It The was quantification of ethnobotanical data more proa<'h will allow ellinobotanists to question Chacabo fusi undei'taken in a studv of the Indians precisely fon^st inventoiy, economics, forest man- of Amazonian Tiolivia (Boom, 1087). This was a ma- agement, market studies, or oilier topics. much jor towanl a more rigorous methodology st<']> where approach a statistical ccnild l»e utilized. Ktli- Mana(;kmfnt Rksoiiu.f. 360 (botanical studies of species of vascular iK known plants by the Cliacaln) identified uses for Caballero (1994) studi<'d the use and manage 305 sptH'ies. In a one-hcclan^ plot, 78.7% of the ment o{ Sahdl Adans. (Arecac<*ae) among the Yue- Volume Number 83, Balick 61 1 1996 Transforming Ethnobotany Maya atec of Mexico, ail example of a contornporaiy worked to ensure that a sio;nifleaiil poilion of roy- study of the relationship betweM^n plants and peo- earned from alties sales of these eorni>ounds tlie pie. Sabal is a multi-use palm that has served as a will be returned to tlie Samoan peoph\ His foun- source of eonstrue!i(»n material, firewood, food, (Seacology Foundation) has <Iation helptnl raise medicine, and magic. CahalhM'o discovered that funds to protect 64,()()() acres of tropical fon^st by some traihtional uses of the trees had disappeared creating four village-owned and -managed r(^serv(^s. (magic, medicine), were declining (broom Altliough most mo-directed pharmacological i)tliers etl making, poles, and while others f<Miees), p<'rsist(nl prospecting in the has not retunuHJ benefits |)asl to (thatch, fuel) or increased (handicrafts). His studies helped native p<M)ple or to cons<^rve the forest eco- show(M] the greatest pressure on the resource was systems where the source plants are found, is it some for thatch, wlien^ 350()-r>()00 Sahal leaves, dear that ethnobotanical studies such as those of requiring 2S0-125() trees (ranging from juvenile to Cox and liis stud(^nts have done much to create a needed house adult). are to thatch a in tlu^ n^gion. new model lor this type of restârch. A for-profit The impoHance of indigenous resource manage- Shaman Pharmaceuticals, was entity. Inc., f(unid(Ml ment way maximizing as a of future supi>lies of with a corporate philosophy that creates mecha- palm leaves evident from study, as are the is tliis nisms ensure both short- and long-term to bt^riefits dangt^rs posed by ovt^-cxploitation of the resource. to traditional peopl(% and promotes conser\ation of Anderson (1988) studied Eutcrpe oiJeerrarcd Mart. (orest ecosystems in the areas the company gathers another palm commonly used Amazonian in Brazil, The plants through healing Fon^st Consen'ancy, a I and found that a single family receiv<'d U.S. and loundation established suj){)orts. it $15,532.86 from sah^s of (63.19f of a^*ai fruit its annual cash income), and U.S. $2,916.79, or 1.8% 1 ErnNohirrAN^ Tin-: Bki.i/k Puoji-'.ct of income from sales heart. Because its of [)alni {)alnis arc so important to tropical forest dwelling The was Rcli/.e Etlin<»botaiiv Project initiated in [)(H)ple. this [)lant family is a prirnan candidate for sac 1988 endeavor ollaborative betw(MMi the Ix a: additional resource manag(Mn*'nt studies. iAwl Tropu-al Foundation, Belizean R(^searc]i a and non-goverrmiental organization, the Institute of PirvKM \<;kiti(:\!. Piu)sj't:(:'ri%(; Economic Botany The New" York Botanical Gar- of The den. j)rincipal purpose of project has been th<* Cox (1991) estimated that least 50 pharma- at to invcMitory the ethnobotanical diversity of Bcliz(% ceutical drugs been discovered from ethtio- liav<' a country with significant tracts of intact lorest as botanical leads. Tlu^st^ include digoxin used to treat as nine cultural and ethnic groups. w(*ll diff(n-(Mit from purpurea atrial fibrillation, isolated Digitalis Dozens expeditions since 1988 have resulted of in TE., a pl1 ant. <*nipl1 oye(!1 n• i t.1tie ei• gt1it. eent.t1i ciMi»luiy .to ' some _ specimens. collections of plant ov<m* ,*U>()(> accmmdation treat dropsy, an of fluid resulting from .1- 509^ with ethnobotanical descriptions. Dunlicalc hI eart. lrai-1lur(\ AA more recent discoven was r vi• n- ot ' • hvvu deposited ^P<''"i'"«-"^ ''^ve in tlir l.,-rl.aria ..f and used .•ristine vinhlastin,-, bolli to Irrat I.Io.hI C die Belize (College of Agriculture, the Belize For- cancers. Isolated from Cdthdninlhus roscus (E.) New estrv Department. The York Botanical Garden, Don. which has been used Caribbean in tlu^ to treat US and the National Herbarium, A databas(* main- '*sweet bloo(!'' (diabetes). tained Tlie New York Botanical Garden be will Coxs Samoa at ethnobotanical research in has led computer Be- dislribulcd several to facilities wîthin to the discovery o( a {)otent anii-viral comj)ouud. The Project has gathered traditional knowl- lize. (hîved from HomaJantfius nutans prostratin. (^/uill. edge graciously by over two dozen {)n)vid<Ml tradi- Cox identified this plant in 981, after learning 1 hcah^rs of Mopaiu Yucatec, Kekchi, Maya, who about from several Inhalers used to treat »i*'iiî' it it When 'adino. Garifuna. Creole, East Indian, and Men- Cancer yellow fever. tested at the National iiouitc (h'scent. Institute, an extract ol this plant e^xhibited {khvciTuI HIV The ellinobotanical in\cntorv has been combined against (Gustafson in vitro activity et al.. 1992). The National Cancer Institute now vvith the production of an annotated checklist of die is |>]an- and based on ning to license prostratin to a drug comj)any for fiowc^riug plants ferns of Belize, col- ethnobotany Cox lections of the project, prt^viously additional study. also identified a topical anti- inflanunatoiy from Erythrina laricgata E., utilized available herbarium sptn-imens, and relevant liter- Samoa The With dozens by healers skin inflammatiou. alurt^ the of of taxoiHHuic spe- in treat iii[>ut ti) aclive component, a navanone, now being devel- cialists, the cluH'klist will help (h^termine the com- is oped by SluMing-Plough Corjjoration. Cox has also [)relien6ivcncss of cthnobotaincal survey. th<' 62 Annals the of Garden Missouri Botanical Number Number Uses of vs. of Collections 25 AAAAAA 20 U) 0) A Momordica charantia (A 15 Aloe vera 0) 10 E Agonandra sp. 3 5 I i I i i I i ^ N o ^ CO (O a> lO 00 T— 1^ C\i cu CO CO CO Tf C\J CNJ Number Collections of Figure 1. Gra|>li Îcrnonstralin^ llie ini[)()rlance of imilliplr itit<'rvirws in investigating local uses of economically Numher Numher important plants. 'Hie of Collci'tions represents the nuniher of people interviewi'd and the of Uses, the different ways in which each species is used. With each of the species represented in this graph, new uses are many 40 IxMUg deserilx-d afler inlerviews with as as still jieojile. THK CONCEIT CURVE The A. TIIK Ml LTIPLE USE of uses, especially in ibe area of dermatology. or-' Agonandra species, Miers ex Benlh. an final sp., is liigorous etiuiobolanii'al study detnaiuls accurate example known of a plant thai not eonunonly is sample delerrninatioii appropriat*' imin- ol size, tlie thnuigliout eommunily and appears liave few- llu; t<» and number bor of c'olleciions, of peopb^ inler- ^r uses, focused on ''male" probl(Mns. also has a r It viewedI, . ordIer ensure I 1 n• iiormali• on on in lo tlial tlie more i- • i- -i - • r» i- limitedi distru)ution Belize than other tlie \\\ Many a specific plant complete. pre- r<'laliv<dy is two taxa, primarily in forests. Ont^ point illustrated vious ethnobolani<'al studi(\s hav<' d<'pended on one eune by the niultiph^ use for these three plants is number or a small of collections as basis for tlie number the large of interviews/eolleetions neees- A and th(Mr information conclusions. mathematical maximum amount Many saiy !o ol)tain the of data. relationship can be develojunl, based on the con- contemporary ethnobt)tanieal studies, ifielu<ling; cept of the spet;ies area curve (Campbell et al., ones based on that utilize statistical metlio<ls, are 1986), to assess the appropriate numbiM* of collec- number a small of inter\iews/collections jxm" spt*- tions or interviews. some cies. For plants, such as those with specialist Figure graphs between the relationship 1 tlu* may ust^s, a few collections from traditional healers number of different uses of three specu\s v(msus the may be sufficient, while more widely used plants ninuber of people iiit<'rviewed. bastnl on 42 inter- dozen recjuire several inlerviews/collcclions Iwfon* views August and September 1994. in lntervi<^w<M^s extant information can obtained. th<^ total b<' were, for the most part, not traditional healers, but eldi'rly ptM)ple willing to discuss the uses of ten STUDIES VAEUA'l'ION B. plant species. Three species have betî sel(M't<Ml to knowledge One illustrate the type of obtained. nu^lhod of asceilalning the value non- of The iip|)er curve in Figure 1 illustrates the uses timber fon^st products in the tropical fon^st to is Momordica of charantia T.., a vining herb ct)mmon inventory a cliârly defined an*a and t'stimat*' the to miuli of the Caribbean ami elsewher^^ The initial economic value of the species found there. Pt^ters 20 13 inlei*views record use^s, but 5 additional uses et al. (1989) W(*re th(* first to document the com- were documented l)y the 39tli intervi<'w. This curv<* mercial value of non-timber foresl products founil illustrates a pattern for a "poweiful {)lant" (Balick, within a hectan» of forest in the P<Muvian Amazon, 1990), one that is wichdy known with multiple uses. but they did not includ<^ medicinal plants in their Tlu^ middh* curve is for Aloe vera (L.) Burm. F., a inventory. This aspect was t^valuated later in Beli; & known c(»inmonly plaut with a nu)re focuse<l series (Balick Mendelsohn, 1992). From two separatt* Volume Number 63 83, Balick 1 1996 Transforming Ethnobotany Tablf 2. Medicinal plants harvested from a 3()-year-old valley forest plot (no. in Cayo, Belize. 1) C omnum name name U a St'ienlific se Bejuco verde Agonandra raremosa (DC].) StandL Sedative, laxative, "gastritis," analgesic Calawalla PIdehodium devumantim (W'illd.) Smith Ulcers, pain, ''gastritis," chronic in(h- J. geslion, high Itlood pressnre, 'Van- >i ce r China root Smilax lanceoUita Blood tonic, fatigue, "anemia," acid I,. stomach, rheumatism, skin condi- tions Coc'otnecca Dioscorea sp. Urinary tract ailments, bladder infection, stoppage of urine, kidney sluggishness and malfunction, loosen to mucus coughs and in cohls, febrifuge, bl(X)d tonic Contiilx Aristolochla trdohata T. Flu, colds, constipation, fevers, stom- I ach ache, indigestion, "gastritis," parasites ^ Uses listed are based on disease concepts recognized in Belize, prhnarily of Mayan origin, tliat ma) or mav not commonU have equivaUnil statt^s in Western methcine. For example, kichiey shiggishness is not a condition recognized common among by Western-trained |)hysicians, but a com|)hunt people in this region. is plots of 30- and 50-year-ol(l forest a total of 308.6 tainahle harvest. However, assuming the curnîl and 1433.6 kg [)er hectare (diy weight) of medi- age of the forest in each plot as a rotation h^ngtli, cines, respectively, whose value could be juflged wf calculated an estimate of the present value of l)y local market forces, was collected. Local herbal harvesting plants sustainably into the future using = V {)liannacists and liealers purchase and process me- the standard Faustman formula: R/(1— e "), R dicinal [ilants from herb gatherers and small farm- where is tlir net revenue from a single fiarv<*st ers for an average price ol U.S. S2.80 per kg, sug- and r is llu^ real interest rate; is the Irngtli of tlu* t gesting that harvesting the medicinal plants from a rotation in years. Given a 30-year rotation in j)lol h(*ctare would yield the collector betwet^n $861- and the present value of medicine $726 per heel- 1. is A $4014 of gross nnenue. Subtracting the costs re- are. similar calculation for plot 2. with a SO-year ban $3327 (juired to est, process, and ship the plants, the rotation, yielded a pn^s<^nt value of p(;r beet- 5% net revcimc frotn clearing a hectare was calculatctl are. Fbesc cahîlations assume a interest rate, to be $501 and $3054 on (âch of the two plots These estimates for the harxest of medicinal & (Balick Mendelsohn, 1992). The of plants plants comjKire favorably with alternative land uses lists and tluMr uses are presented in Tables 2 and 3. in the region, such as milpa (corn, bean, and Not enough information available to under- s(]uash cultivation) in Guatemalan rainforest, which is stand cycle and regeneration time needed yichhni $288 luMtare. Other commercial pHnl- tb(^ life jx'r for each thus we cannot comment on the nets, such as allspice, copal, chicle, and construc- s[)<xîes, frequency and extent of collection involved in sus- tion materials, in the plots could he harvested and hom Table 3. Medicinal plants harvested a 50-year-old ridg<\ ri>rest phtl (no. 2) in Cayo. lielize. Common name name Use Scientific DC & Negrito Sunaruha glauca l)ysent<'ry diarrhea, dysmenorrhea, skin condi- and Imwel tions. .>U>mach tonic Gumholimlx Ban swuiruod stomach cramps. rsera h Anliprurili<'. kidiic\ infections, di- ) (U) Sarg. ureti(* CJiina root Smilax IdtHvohita U Blood tonic, fatigue, ""'anemia." acid stomach, rheumatism, skin comhtions Cocomccca Dioscorea Urinary ailments, bladder infection. stop[)age sp. tract kidney sluggishness and malfunction, of urine, to loosen mucus couglis and febrifuge, in c<»lds, blood tonic 64 Annals the of Garden Missouri Botanical added lo the total value of tlu' medicinal plants. for ingredients from rainforest species will result. some Thus, this study suj5g<*sttMl that protection of This could eoiitril)ule to preservation of tropical for- manage areas of rainforest as (extractive n^serves for medic- est ecosystems, but only //people can^fuUy plants appears to economically justified. the production or extraction of the [)lant species itial Ik* It seems that a periodic liarvtvst strategy is a nndistic that arc primary ingredients in these products. In and sustainable method of utilizing the forest. addition to using methods of sustainable extraction Rastul on our evaluation of forest similar to the sec- from natural ecosystems, small farmers will culli- ond, SO-hectare plot analyzed, would appear vate some species for sale to both local herbalists tliat it one lould luu*vest and clear one hectare per ytâr and conuncrcial companies. To address the latter indcfmilely, assuming that all of tlu^ speci<*s found possibility, our work in the Belize Ethnobotany Pro- in each plot would regcMicrate at similar rates. More jvv\ has inchuled a program with th(^ B(*lize College some than likely, howtner, species, such as liursera of Agriculture (BCA), Central Farms, to l<*arn liow slrnaruhd Sarg., would become more dominant to propagate and grow over 24 different plants cur- (I..) Hugh in the forest ecosystem, while others, such as Dios- rently utilized in tratlitional medicine, become BCA, corva L., could ran*. 0'Bri<Mi, Professor of Hoilicullure at has co- This analysis is based on cuncnt market data, ordinated this effort, which has included tlu^ genen and estimates of the worth of the forest could Achras L., Aristolochia L., Brosimurn Sw., Bursera change with lo(*al market forces. For example, if Jacq. ex L., Cedrehi P. Browne, Croton L., Jatropha knowledg(* about tropical lu^rbal medicines b(*- Myroxylon L.f., Neurohiena R, Br., Piscidia L,, I-., widespread and Psidlum Senna Simarouha i-oines mort* their collection in- L., Millt»r. Aublet, Snii- cnâses, prices for sourct* plants would fall. Simi- lax L., Stachytarpheta Vahl., and Sirirtrnia Jactj. more consumers became aware of the larly, if pol.-ntial of soMir of tlirsr iuf<Iicinps, or the cost if „ KSTAm.LSllMKNT OK AN KTIINO-mOMKDICAl, KOHKST of conunercially produced pharmaceuticals became ,,,-.,-,», .^ demand too great, for herbal medicines could in- <r(\ise, substantially driving up {irices. Finally, de- The concept of the extractive reserve as a tool many struction of the tropical forest habitats of of for conservation has received a great deal of atten- Many thcse important plants could increase their scarcity, tion over the last f<'w years. of thest* reserves driving up local prices. Tliis scenario has already are tracts of f(irest where non-timber products ran been obsened in Belize with some species, indi- be harvested by local individuals or groups who eating that the value; of tn»pical forest for the liar- th(M)retically have a stake in the preservation of the vest of Mon-limber lort*sl products will increase rel- forests bIol(»gical integrity (Allegn^tti, 1990). Prod- ative to other land uses over time, as these forests ucts such as rubber, Brazil nuts, copal resin, plant b ecome more and scarce. construction materials, foliage oils, fruits, fib<M*, house and plants for the florist trade, other items have been selected harvest and marki;ting from for DEVKl.OPMKNTOF A I'OKKST-BASED TKADITIONAI C. Amazon, Ameri- extractive reserves in the Central MKDICINK INDUSTRY ca, Asia, and Africa. Numerous perspectives on One of the primary dilcitunas in tluMlevelopmc^nt these resource's, both positive and ru^gative, have of an extraction program non-timber fon^st prod- been highlighted recently (Browder, 1992; Ryan, f(»r ucts has been the long history of overcollecting and 1991). and and resultant decline of resources, c^xpoil pro- In June 1993, a r)000-acn\ lowland tropical for- cessing of raw materials at c<Miters and countric^s est, government-owned n^serve was (established for far from thtMr origin. Rattan is a classic example of the extraction of medicinal [)lants, teaching, and people in prinlucing countries, who are closest to ap[)renticeship, with financial support from The the resource, receiving the smallest percentage of Healing Conservancy and The Rex Foun- Forc^st the profits derived from its matmfacture into high- dalion. This particular forest, in the Yalbak region & quality furniture (Dransfield Manokaran, 1993). of Belize, contains a broad diversity of mcMlicinal many In Central America, as elsc^where in the developing plant species. Also within borders arc spe- its world, locally developed brands of plant-derived cies of animals, iiu-luding jaguar, peccary, tapir, now medicine are bcung mark<»ted with a value- howler monkeys, and numerous other manunals, added component (production and packaging) and re- birds, n^ptiles. A maining in the country of origin of the raw material. unicjue feature of this reserve that has is it As more of these products appear, based on the been dc^signaled for the extraction of mc^dicinal demand success of the original endeavors, greater plants used locally as part of the primai^ health 65 Number Volume Balick 83, 1 Ethnobotany Transforming 1996 Taldf use inforrnalion (((llcck-d 4. Cre(lil)ililv ralinii for example Hypotbelical Cat ego Ral uig r)' observed use Dr. Smith saw lliese Orlngnya cohtirir leaves lieing Collector iist!s or dirt'ctlv 1 used as thatch in BeH/e. Maya Don Smith he uses these Informant uses or directly observed use 2 Iiealer, Elijio, told Dr. riptT anidldgo roots for snakebite. 3 Kthnographer on the Sioux reservation heard Informant beard/knew from a furtlier source tliat tlie Sioux used Aster for menstruation problems. tlie 4 As the IKH teaching collection, where uses will Use reported from the literature for and summari/ed on be gathered from literature llu' the use label. Common knowledge 5 As. for example, a collection of a <ulti\ar of coffee from coffee planlalion with a repotled use as a a stimulant beverage. New down any unknown 6 botanist neglected to write inior- Credibility of use information field malion al)out his informant. mctbodology. ConltînporaiT studies are incoi[)orat- Accordingly, type of (Extractive care lu^twork. this most poweifid of niob-cular resene was classified as an "etbno-hioinedical ing llic tecliiiiqiies f(»r- and computerization the analysis lenn Inteniled pliarrnacob)gy in est reserve'' (Balick et al., 1994). a One convey a sens(» of ibe interaction between people. of ellinolKttanical data. recent dt^veb)pinent be- to New York Botanical plants, and animals, and tlie liealtb care system in nig iiiipl(MiUMil*Ml at Tlie (iar- (NYBC) Economic Botany (lEB) Institute of region. (Kmi's tlu E One objective of the vt^scrve (^tlmobotanical the establisbment of a "credibility rating" lor in- is is and ecological n^search, designed to identify the formation that collected on plant utilization. In is plant resources contains and develop ap|)ropriate the past there was little opportunity to evaluate the it technologies for thiMr sustainable extraclion. David quality of data based on the way wâs collected it When Canipl)cll and his students from Grinn(dl College during cthnobolanical studies. extracting in- (lowa. U.S.A.) have constructtul ecological transects formation from the ethnob<»tanical literatur<N is it in selecte<l parts of the reservê to serve as long- randy (dear whether the investigator actually ol>- Some mon- tenn study sites. of tlu^se transe<'ts will the uses discuss<ul, or servi'd or particii)aled in itor extraction, while others monitor changes in llu whether the data were collected during a casual have Ethnobotanical inventories native v(^getation. younger person walk through the forest with a wlio begun economically important plants to catab)g in remembers specific uses of the plants by one of his Cayo suiTounding Dis- the res(^rve, as w*dl as in the To address the crechbility rating this, f^jj-^.i^^.î-^. Other scientists will be invited to participate Irict. dable 4 be incort)orated into the [)resenled in will in these studies. database N\UC. Data with a rating of have a at 1 many ethno-bio- be years before this will first It being accurate, whib' those of certaii.ty ,^.^^^,„.j|,i^. meihcal reserve can be judged a success or forest - authoritative. ^^.^,^ ^.^^^.^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ j^^ ,^^^^ ^^ A work must go dev(d- failun\ great (bâl of into and mis an experim<Mit, wi cer- lougn rating Alll thi is :h managi'tnent plan and finding the finan- o{)ing the an attempt begin revised over time, to tainly is 1h' it human Imjdement band and resources ust to cial it. and data collected slandardi/e (luality of to tb(^ pressures suiTounding the reserve, specifically log- . •. i-Ti-* ^ evali uat. e ndiative credibility. '. its . , ,. - 1 • 1 and ging and, agricultun% as w(dl as soci<»logical 1 be- There r<dationship a de<'p, often spiritual is / could endanger the long-term ex- political factors, r.- • .i .»• tween plants and ix'opli e, in iboth itraditumali s<'ttings ! ,. , H,,iiwever, • i> 1- ,t1berc istence of the reserve. in litdize is ' These and among more acculturated societies. re- it. much optimism and support, a e:reat deal of of it at can be elucidated through ethnobotan- D laliotiships f me- t,he grass roots b1 ^vel1. Rest^rves tor protf(H'ft-ing t v . and used increase ,bu. ilogicali literacy studies to '^^'^^ been established plants rec:ently liave iciiial el among community, evidenced the non-scientific as ensure nationwide across India, in a effort to tlu by work Mt\xico, Samoa, and Btdize. If the most in supply of imi)ortanl s[KHdes. lliese be conservation arc crucial issut^s of biodiv<'rsity to CONCI.I SION addressed we need improve the ed- succ<'ssfiilly, ti> comnumicate the im- The discipline of elbnolxttany currently evcdv- ucational systt^m's ability to is underpinnings and portance of science, not only to people In the Unit- ing both in philosophical its 66 Annals the of Garden Missouri Botanical ed States hut aroinid the world. essential 1986. Quanlitalive ecological inventory on terra finnc is to It and build on the value of systeinatie kiumltnlge and viirzea tropical forest on ific Hut Xingu, Brazilian Amazon. 369-393. Hrittonia 38: way link with the world in a thai inspires the it Cox, A. 1994. The ethnoholanical approach drug P. to lar<i;esl possible eonstitueney to appreciate the im- discovery: Strengths and 25-41 limitations. Pp. in I). J. & purlanet* of hiodiversity ami the need for con- Cliadwick Marsh Ethn(»holany and its (editors), the J. New & servation, Klhnohotany has been an important Search for Drugs. John Wiley Sons, West Sussex. tool <-"'">i"^''^'". \ 1^^- Kthics Re- Ell,noLiol..,Moal meeting for ll.Ls .„al, a.ul will cc.ntinue to l,e the ^^. ir. WWh-Wodd search, and Riodiversity. Wide Fund for future. In the context Systeinalics A^jenda 2000, (»f Nature, Mevrin, Switzerland. is worth recalling the wôrds of Ralph Waldo Em- & Manokaran it Dransfield, N. (Kdilors). 1993. Plant Re- J. who erson wrote, "Nature ttÛs everv secret once." sources uf Soullieasl Asia, No. 6. Ratlans. Pudoc Sci- It is imperative that we heed these words and be- entitle Publishers, Wiigeningen. Fewkes, W. 1896. A contrihution ethnohotany. Amer. to come J. better prepared to uiid(M-stand those secrets. Anthropol. 14-21. 0: Ford, R. 1978. Ethnohotany: and llistori<aI diversity I. 33-19 Literature (]ited synthesis. Pp. in \\. I. Ford (editor). The Nature and Museum Status of Etfuiohotany. of Anthropology, AllegreUi. M. II, 1990. 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