towards better cross-cultural adjustment: from cultural distance to cultural intelligence

303 Pages·2014·3.77 MB·English

by  Ying Zhang

TOWARDS BETTER CROSS-CULTURAL
ADJUSTMENT:
FROM CULTURAL DISTANCE TO CULTURAL
INTELLIGENCE

Presented By
Ying Zhang
Master of Education (The University of Melbourne)
Bachelor of Arts (Yunnan University)

A Dissertation
Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Business
Charles Sturt University
September 2013
i
Thesis-related Publications
Zhang, Y., & Oczkowski, E. (2014: under review). Towards better expatriated
cross-cultural adjustment: Modeling the effects of cultural distance
asymmetry on cultural intelligence and position levels. Cross-Cultural
Manageent: An Interantional Journal.

Zhang, Y. (2013). Expatriate development for cross-cultural adjustment:
Effects of cultural distance and cultural intelligence. Human
Resource Development Review, 12(2), 176-198.

Zhang, Y. (2011). Measuring dimensions of cultural intelligence for better
cross-cultural adjustment. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of
International Association for Chinese Management Research
(IACMR), July, Xiamen, China.

ii
Table of Contents
List of Tables ................................................................................................ v
List of Figures .............................................................................................. vi
Certificate of Authorship ........................................................................... vii
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................... viii
Ethics Approval ........................................................................................... ix
Paid Editorial Assistance ............................................................................. x
Abstract ........................................................................................................ xi
Abbreviations............................................................................................. xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 1
1.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background of the Study ...................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Problem and Research Design ............................................ 10
1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................ 19
1.5 Research Significance ........................................................................ 20
1.6 Research Methodology ....................................................................... 23
1.7 Key Assumptions and Delimitations of Scope ................................... 26
1.8 Chapter Summary and Thesis Outline ............................................... 28
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY
DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................... 31
2.1 Chapter Overview .............................................................................. 31
2.2 Culture and Dimensions of Culture .................................................... 32
2.2.1 Culture ......................................................................................... 32
2.2.2 Comparison of Cultural Dimension Models ............................... 33
2.3 Contextual Difference and Cultural Distance .................................... 36
2.3.1 An Overview of the Socio-economic Contexts ........................... 37
2.3.2 The Oriental Chinese Way vs. Occidental Australian Mind ....... 39
2.3.3 Cultural Distance between China and Australia ......................... 43
2.3.4 Cultural Distance Asymmetry ..................................................... 47
2.4 Cross-Cultural Adjustment................................................................. 52
2.4.1 A Review of Cross-Cultural Adjustment Theories ..................... 52
2.4.2 Socio-Cultural and Psycho-Cultural Adjustment ........................ 60
2.4.3 Limitations of Previous Cross-Cultural Adjustment Theories .... 64
2.5 Cultural Intelligence ........................................................................... 68
2.5.1 The Nature of CQ ........................................................................ 69
2.5.2 Conceptualization of Four-Dimensional CQ .............................. 73
2.5.3 Empirical Studies on CQ ............................................................. 83
2.5.4 Summary of Cultural Intelligence ............................................... 86
2.6 Development of Theory and Hypotheses ........................................... 87
2.6.1 Cultural Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Adjustment ................. 87
2.6.2 Moderating Effects of Cultural Distance Asymmetry .............. 101
2.7 Chapter Summary and Conceptual Model ....................................... 111
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .............................................. 114
3.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 114
3.2 Methodology Plan ............................................................................ 114
3.3 Target Population and Sampling Frame ........................................... 117
3.4 Research Sites and Procedures ......................................................... 119
iii
3.5 Sample Adequacy and Sample Characteristics ................................ 122
3.6 Research Instrument ......................................................................... 124
3.6.1 Questionnaire Design ................................................................ 124
3.6.2 Demographic Information ......................................................... 125
3.6.3 Measurement of Variables ........................................................ 127
3.6.4 Reliability and Validity Issues .................................................. 135
3.7 Data Analysis Plan ........................................................................... 137
3.7.1 Statistical Modelling Approach ................................................ 137
3.7.2 Model Fit Analysis and Statistical Indices ................................ 140
3.8 Chapter Summary ............................................................................ 143
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS .................... 144
4.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 144
4.2 Preliminary Analysis ........................................................................ 145
4.2.1 Data Integrity ............................................................................ 145
4.2.2 Reliability Tests ........................................................................ 151
4.3 Descriptive Analysis ........................................................................ 152
4.3.1 Descriptive Statistics for the Sample Groups ........................... 152
4.3.2 Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Dependent Variables
............................................................................................................ 155
4.4 Bivariate Analysis ............................................................................ 157
4.5 Evaluation of Measurement Model and Confirmatory Factor Analysis
................................................................................................................ 162
4.5.1 Model Modification .................................................................. 163
4.5.2 Construct Reliability and Validity Testing ............................... 165
4.6 Tests of Hypothesized Structural Models and Interpretation of Results
................................................................................................................ 171
4.6.1 Overall Goodness-of-Fit for the General Model ....................... 171
4.6.2 Causal Relationship Testing and Interpretation of Results ....... 174
4.6.3 Tests of CDA Moderation Effect and Interpretation of Results 186
4.7 Discussion ........................................................................................ 193
4.7.1 Individual Differences and Cross-Cultural Adjustment ............ 194
4.7.2 Cultural Distance Asymmetry Moderating Effect .................... 199
4.7.3 Control Variables ...................................................................... 208
4.8 Chapter Summary ............................................................................ 211
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 216
5.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 216
5.2 Summary of the Research Findings ................................................. 217
5.3 Theoretical and Empirical Contributions ......................................... 222
5.4 Practical Contributions ..................................................................... 230
5.5 Limitations of the Research and Recommendations for Future Study
................................................................................................................ 235
5.6 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................ 240
REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 245
APPENDICES A - C ................................................................................ 263
iv
List of Tables
Table 2. 1 Comparison of Models of Cultural Dimensions ........................... 34
Table 2. 2 Comparison of Cultural Characteristics of Australia and China ... 44
Table 2. 3 Demonstration of Berry‟s (1990) Model of Acculturation ........... 58
Table 2. 4 Conceptualization and Applications of Cultural Intelligence ....... 81
Table 2. 5 Summary of Empirical Studies on Cultural Intelligence .............. 84
Table 2. 6 Summary of Hypotheses in the Current Study ............................ 112
Table 3. 1 Sampling Frame and Responses ................................................. 120
Table 3. 2 Sample and Database Concordance ............................................ 123
Table 3. 3 Measuring Socio-Cultural Adjustment ....................................... 129
Table 3. 4 Measuring Psycho-Cultural Adjustment ..................................... 131
Table 3. 5 Measuring Cultural Intelligence .................................................. 132
Table 3. 6 Summary of Variables ................................................................ 134
Table 3. 7 Summary of Model Fit Indices ................................................... 142
Table 4. 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Dataset Post Removal of Outliers .. 148
Table 4. 2 Cronbach‟s Alpha Reliability Tests ............................................ 151
Table 4. 3 Comparative Demographic Variables of Sample Groups: Mean
and SD ......................................................................................... 152
Table 4. 4 Comparative Demographic Variables of Sample Groups:
Frequency Table .......................................................................... 153
Table 4. 5 Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Dependent Variables156
Table 4. 6 Pearson Correlational Coefficient Analysis for Independent and
Dependent Variables .................................................................... 157
Table 4. 7 Pearson Correlational Coefficient and Point Biserial Analysis for
All Relevant Variables ................................................................. 158
Table 4. 8 Summary of Measurement Model and Reliability and Validity
Measures ...................................................................................... 167
Table 4. 9 Correlation Matrix for Latent Variables ..................................... 168
Table 4. 10 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ...................................... 169
Table 4. 11 Summary of Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for the Measurement
Model and Structural Models ...................................................... 172
Table 4. 12 Comparison of Regression Weights in Hypothesized Structural
Models 1 and 2 ............................................................................ 173
Table 4. 13 Structural Equation Modelling: H1 to H8 Hypotheses Testing 185
Table 4. 14 Testing for Multi-group Invariance: Model Fit Comparison .... 188
Table 4. 15 Structural Equation Modelling: H9 and H10 Hypotheses Testing
..................................................................................................... 190
Table 4. 16 Multi-group Invariance Analysis for Moderating Effects and
Tests for Differences between Path Coefficients ........................ 191
Table 4. 17 Comparison of Empirical Findings Regarding Hypotheses H1 to
H8 ................................................................................................ 198
Table 4. 18 CDA Moderation Effects on Position Level and Adjustment
Relationships ............................................................................... 206
v
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1 The U-Curve Model of Adjustment.............................................. 55
Figure 2. 2 Systemic Typology of Current Study with Cross-Level Analysis66
Figure 2. 3 Demonstration of Dimensions of Cultural Intelligence ................ 73
Figure 2. 4 Clarification of Moderated Relationships Among Variables ..... 103
Figure 2. 5 Theoretical Research Model ....................................................... 113
Figure 3. 1 Hypothesized Theoretical Model ................................................ 140
Figure 4. 1 Scatter Plots for CQ Measures with Work Adjustment Graph ... 149
Figure 4. 2 Scatter Plots for CQ Measures with General Living Condition
Adjustment Graph ...................................................................... 149
Figure 4. 3 Scatter Plots for CQ Measures with HCN Interaction Adjustment
Graph .......................................................................................... 149
Figure 4. 4 Scatter Plots for CQ Measures with Psycho-Cultural Adjustment
Graph .......................................................................................... 150

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Certificate of Authorship

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of
my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or
written by another person nor material, which, to a substantial extent, has
been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at Charles Sturt
University, or any other educational institution, except where due
acknowledgment is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the
research by colleagues with whom I have worked at Charles Sturt
University or elsewhere during my candidature is fully acknowledged.

I agree that this thesis be accessible for the purpose of study and research in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the Executive
Director, Library Services or nominee, for the care, loan, and reproduction
of theses.

Zhang Ying

Ying Zhang
Faculty of Business
Charles Sturt University
September 2013
vii
Acknowledgments
Throughout this doctoral journey, my principal supervisor, Professor Eddie
Oczkowski deserves my heartfelt thanks. He became my mentor during a
difficult time and offered tremendous support and encouragement. It has
been a wonderful and rewarding experience working with and learning
from him. I offer my sincere thanks for his kindness, his timely and detailed
answers to all of my questions, his help throughout each and every phase of
the dissertation process, and his very useful and enjoyable teaching on the
quantitative structural equation modelling approach. I would also like to
express my deepest gratitude to my associate supervisors, Dr Robert
Herriot and Dr Debra Da Silva for their invaluable comments, time, and
generous guidance.

My appreciation also goes to the Australian China Chamber of Commerce
and the Sydney Chinese Consulate for allowing me access to their
expatriate databases and for providing valuable background information. I
would like to acknowledge Professor Alan Fish for his kind efforts in
helping me expand the networking during the data collection stage and
supervising the early stage of my candidature. Special thanks also go to the
Chinese and Australian expatriates who responded to the survey, to Dr
Ramudu Bhanugopan and Dr Robert Tuck for practical feedback on the
initial research and survey design, and to the staff at Charles Sturt’s Wagga
Wagga library and Faculty of Business, in particular, staff members, Mr
Robert Scully and Ms Merryn Lanarus.

I sincerely thank Charles Sturt University for its scholarship award, without
which this study would not have been possible. I would also like to take this
opportunity to show my appreciation to Mr Adrian Lindner, Mr Tony Bush,
and Dr David Strong for their exceptional assistance in helping my family
settle down in Wagga Wagga. I am truly thankful to my many friends and
colleagues, especially Mr Huang Jianhui, Ms Nicole Chen and Dr Hao Yin,
who offered extraordinary support to me during this process with their
encouragement, proofreading skills, suggestions, and prayers.

Finally, a special thankyou goes to my husband Jianhong, my brother Jing,
and my dearest mother Aiya, for their strong faith in my ability to complete
the doctoral program and giving me unconditional support and continuous
encouragement during the years of research and preparation when I needed
them most. This research would not have been possible without unfailing
support given by each one of them. One more PhD is unlikely to change the
world, but my own world and my own self have undoubtedly changed
dramatically as a result of pursuing this academic honour.

viii
Ethics Approval

ix
Paid Editorial Assistance
During the final stage of the preparation of this thesis the services of Kerry
Davies, Principal of Academic Editorial Publishing Services - ABN: 63 983
631 395 - Queensland was used. Ms Davies‟ current or former academic
specialisation had no relevance to the thesis. Her professional service
consisted of punctuation, grammar, and style, and conformed to Australian
Standard for Editing - Completeness and Consistency. At no stage did Ms
Davies‟ editing alter or improve the substantive content or conceptual
organisation of the thesis.

Ying Zhang
Faculty of Business
Charles Sturt University
September 2013

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