Towards an Energy Policy for Transport : A Series of Papers Presented to the Watt Committee Consultative Council Held At the Royal Aeronautical Society in London On November 27th 1979 Watt Committee Report ; No. 7

112 Pages·1990·1.47 MB·English

by  Watt Committee

Published by: The Watt Committee on Energy Ltd
75 Knightsbridge
London SW1X 7RB
Telephone: [phone]
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
© 1980 The Watt Committee on Energy Ltd
Dajon Graphics Ltd., Hatch End, Pinner, Middx. 4–80
ISBN 0-203-21021-2 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-26808-3 (Adobe eReader Format)
THE WATT COMMITTEE ON ENERGY
REPORT NUMBER 7
Towards an energy policy for transport
A series of papers presented to The Watt Committee
Consultative Council held at The Royal Aeronautical
Society in London on November 27th 1979. Verbal
and written discussion is included.
The Watt Committee on Energy Ltd
A Company limited by guarantee: Reg. in England No. 1350046
Charity Commissioners Registration No. 279087 APRIL 1980
Contents
Foreword v
FUEL TYPE AND ITS FUTURE AVAILABILITY 1
J.H.Boddy, The Institute of Petroleum
Extracts from Discussion 9
THE MAKING OF A POLICY 12
T.L.Beagley, The Chartered Institute of Transport
ROAD VEHICLES OF THE FUTURE 21
Dr. J.H.Weaving, The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
PROSPECT FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION IN THE RAILWAYS 31
K.Taylor, The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
ENERGY SAVING IN SHIPS BY OPTIMUM UTILISATION AND LONG-TERM REDUCTION IN 44
THE USE OF FOSSIL FUELS
Commander M.B.F.Ranken, The Institute of Marine Engineers
AIR TRANSPORT ENERGY REQUIREMENT TO 2025 49
P.Robinson, The Royal Aeronautical Society
Extracts from Discussion 64
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS DIMENSION 66
R.J.Matthews, The Post Office Long Range and Strategic Studies Division
TRANSPORT AND THE CONSUMER 73
P.Rickaby, The Open University
with Miss E.Baillie, Association of Home Economists
and W.B.Pascall, Royal Institute of British Architects
Extracts from Discussion 83
TOWARDS AN ENERGY POLICY-A RESUME 85
Professor I.C.Cheeseman, The Chartered Institute of Transport
Extracts from Discussion 88
GENERAL DISCUSSION POINTS 90
Sir William Hawthorne Cambridge University 90
Commander M.B.F.Ranken The Institute of Marine Engineers 91
J.F.May The Institution of Mechanical Engineers 91
D.S.Bliss The Royal Aeronautical Society 92
B.Lees The Institute of Energy 92
R.W.Wheeler The Combustion Institute 95
Dr. I.V.Howell The Chemical Society 95
J.G.Dawson The Institution of Mechanical Engineers 95
iv
R.F.Coe The Institute of Physics 95
EPILOGUE 103
Professor J.Swithenbank The Institute of Energy
The Watt Committee on Energy
Watt Committee Reports
Foreword
The importance of energy for transport was recognised in Report No. 1 published by The Watt Committee on Energy in 1977.
Two features of transport energy use are its magnitude (approximately 22% of the UK total) and its vulnerability to oil
supplies (nearly 50% of our oil supply). There have been several excellent conferences elsewhere since then on new
technology and the future designs of aircraft, ships and railway trains but there seemed a need to consider all transport modes
together. In assessing substitution of energy sources there is a tendency also to consider substitution of transport modes, but
this is a complex matter and such substitutions will be slow and generally costly. There are historic instances of such changes,
e.g. from sail to steam at sea in the 19th Century, from coal to oil on the railways in the 1950s and from petrol engined
aircraft to kerosene powered jets in the 50s and 60s. Such changes take place over a time span of decades. Some transport
vehicles have a normal replacement time of 30 years, a few longer still, hence it is a vital matter to match any major transport
response to future energy changes to the appropriate time scale.
This Report is based on the proceedings of the all-day Consultative Council held at The Royal Aeronautical Society,
London, on 27th November 1979 to deal with the factors contributing to a rational energy policy for transport. The papers
were arranged by the Transport Working Group of The Watt Committee. The proceedings also include extracts from the
discussion and correspondence subsequently received. The papers presented set the scene as follows:
Oil availability
Transport policy issues
Modes of transport
Non-vehicular transport
Changes of life style
Recommendations for transport energy policy
Energy however is only one aspect of transport planning and although prospects for reducing energy losses by improved
design are important so also are matters of industrial policy, taxation, legislation and the acceptability of alternative life
styles. Moreover there are severe conflicts between short term profitability and longer term interests compounded by
restraints on available funds for innovative engineering.
The meeting reported here was an experiment to deal with a complex but significant part of our present way of life by
outlining issues and opening up discussion amongst professionals drawn from over 60 institutions.
Clearly the matter cannot be finally settled at a one day-long meeting and hence it has been arranged to hold a follow-up
occasion in June 1980 when various considered responses to these proceedings will be reviewed. Thereafter recommendations
for forming and implementing an energy policy for transport will be advocated.
John E.Allen
Royal Aeronautical Society
Chairman, Working Group on Transport
Fuel type and its future availability
J.H.Boddy Institute of Petroleum
This paper was presented to Consultative Council November 1979 by Mr. A.Cluer, Institute of Petroleum, on behalf of the
author.
Fuel type and its future availability
Introduction
In the context of fuels for transport, petroleum plays a predominant role, hence this paper will give greatest consideration to
petroleum products.
The historical development of the Oil Industry and its markets is very relevant to the present quality of transport fuels. The
large investments already made and the even larger ones that would be required to fundamentally change both the refining
units of oil products and the equipment which consumes them inhibits the basic approach that might look at the resource and
say how best can it be used. Consideration of future fuel types and their availability must be based on evolution rather than
revolution, recognising that changes involving investment both in respect to the user and the producer, even in evolutionary
changes, need five or more years lead time. It is, in fact, a main purpose of the series of papers, of which this is but one, to
promote government, public and industry to trigger the changes that prepare a more certain future.
Further to these considerations it must be appreciated that whilst the UK may be tempted to regard self-sufficiency in oil
and considerable reserves of coal as a justification for parochial solutions to UK’s energy problems, oil production and
marketing is a world-wide operation. One would like to say that it is an integrated world-wide operation in which case
planning future availability would be made very much easier. Political forces and the uneven distribution of oil resources
throughout the world have made oil the largest of all political footballs. The UK is not self-sufficient in other resources; has
no tradition of isolation; is a member of the Common Market as well as International Defence and trading associations and
would need revolutionary changes to bring about entire self-sufficiency in all things. Therefore, the considerations we pursue
must be of the UK as an import-dependent trading nation.
Fuel type
The specific needs of internal combustion engines called for the separating out of light fractions of the oil from the less
volatile more viscous components of the crude oil which could be extracted from the earth. Crude oil comprises a blend of
many different hydrocarbons with minor contamination of carbon and hydrogen compounds combining within them sulphur
and trace quantities of metallic and other ash forming materials. The hydrocarbons range in their volatility from gaseous to
solid and can be separated out into different boiling fractions by distillation processes.
Originally a simple shell still unit was used to break down the crude into the following component fractions:—
Designation Approx. boiling range
Gasoline up to 180°C
Kerosene 180°C–250°C
Residue above 250°C
Subsequent improvements in distillation permitted the present day sub-division into Gasoline, Kerosene and Gas Oil cut in the
atmospheric distillation process and further separation of additional distillation cuts in part for lubricating oil manufacture by
means of vacuum distillation.
The distillation fractions and their uses may be more fully described as follows:—
Product designation Boiling range Use
Gases Below 30°C Industrial Heating
Domestic Heating
Chemical Manufacture
THE WATT COMMITTEE ON ENERGY 3
LEAD CONTINT g/I OPTIMUM OCTANE NO.
0.6 98+
0.4 96.8
0.15 95.5
OCTANE QUALITY LEAD g/I CRUDE SAVING%
98/92 PREM/REG 0.15 0
95.5 (OPTIMUM) 0.15 1.5
96 8 (OPTIMUM) 0.4 3.2
Figure 1 Lead limit effects on conservation

Product designation Boiling range Use
Automotive fuel
Gasoline) 30°C–200°C Automotive fuel
Naphtha) Chemical production
Kerosene 180°C–250°C Lamp oil
Heating oil
Aviation fuel
Gas Oil/Diesel fuel 200°C–370°C Gas making,
Boiler fuel
Diesel engines
Lubricants Vacuum distillates
Fuel Oils Distillation residue Marine engine and large stationary boiler fuels
For further reference later in this review it is worth noting that on the simple basis that distillation involves the energy cost of
heating oil to approx. 350°C and assuming a heating efficiency of 70%, there is an energy cost of some 2–3% of the energy of
the fuel produced. Heat exchange enables the recovery of much of this loss resulting in a net energy penalty of around 2%.
Fuel qualities
Gasoline must meet a number of quality requirements which in part depend on the mechanical sophistication of the engine
and the required level of economic utilisation as a fuel. These factors include:— volatility and distillation characteristics
affecting the ease of starting the engine, time to warm up, reliability, tendency to vapour lock, icing of the carburetter.
Relating this point to the engine design it must be noted that those features of design which limit the emission of pollutants
and improved fuel consumption demand more precise fuel qualities.
Odour—mercaptans which may be present in the virgin crude oil or be produced in processing required for other quality
controls cause objectionable and unacceptable odours and have to be removed.
Gum formation—a result of some thermally unstable constituents in gasoline may cause malfunction of the fuel system.
Means of eliminating gum constituents or stabilising them is a necessary quality control.
Knock resistance—The higher the compression ratio and hence the potential engine efficiency, the higher the knock
resistance required. Lead additive or components produced by secondary refining processes can improve anti-knock quality.
The economy advantage of higher compression ratio is offset by the energy penalty of producing higher octane quality. The
optimisation of gasoline quality and compression ratio is stressed by Spencer and Boddy.1 Figure 1 illustrates the effect of
environmental constraints limiting the use of lead to increase octane quality.
Kerosene has varied considerably in its application. Starting as a lamp oil it has been split up into its aromatic and non-
aromatic parts and provided the dual function of internal combustion engine fuel (vapourising oil used in agricultural tractor
engines) and domestic burner fuel and now, as aviation fuel for the gas turbine engine, it has completely replaced
reciprocating engines for commercial craft.
Significant qualities for its present purpose are:—
Distillation range – for good fuel handling in the engine fuel system.
Smoke point – for freedom from exhaust smoke and combustion chamber deposits.
Calorific value – for Aircraft economy.
Freeze point – for fuel flow under arctic and altitude operation.
4 FUEL TYPE AND ITS FUTURE AVAILABILITY
Flash point – for safety.
Gas Oil, as with Kerosene, has ranged over a number of applications including gas making, domestic boiler fuel, Diesel
engine fuel, residual fuel oil blending stock. The requirements as a Diesel fuel are the most exacting—the more significant
qualities being:—
Cetane number – for low combustion noise, good starting and smoke control.
Cold temperature fluidity – operation under cold temperatures.
Sulphur content – limited for low pollution and control of engine corrosion.
Boiling range – Smoke control and paniculate emission control.
Specific gravity – Heat content per unit volume engine power.
Both environmental and engine design features are relevant to the fuel quality desired and are such that more severe
environmental and relaxed design calls for more stringent fuel qualities.
Lubricating oil fractions are a small part of the crude oil and some of their energy is recoverable as a fuel subsequent to use
so that energy demand is confined to the refining energy and the losses in lubrication which are associated with engineering
quality and sophistication.
In order to suit the various levels of investment in boilers and furnace equipment, residual fuels which concentrate the
contaminants of the crude have been manufactured to different viscosity levels requiring different levels of product heating
before burning. These different fuels are prepared essentially by blending residues of different processes, gas oil and other
heavy distillates with atmospheric and vacuum residues. The larger marine turbine boilers with sophisticated fuel handling
equipment have been able to use the lower grade fuels. On this account and because they have the least stringent exhaust
emission limitations, they will continue to be called upon to use, as a fuel, those heavier products of refining remaining when
best use is made of crude for land transport fuels.
Refinery processes
The main processes required for refining after distillation are for improving the quality of gasoline by reforming some
constituents; further fractionating or solvent extracting straight distillates or unprocessed fractions for improving quality;
alkylating or cracking (Thermal, Catalytic Cracking or Hydrocracking) for extending distillation cuts, i.e. recombining lighter
molecules to make heavier ones, or breaking down large molecules to make smaller ones; sweetening or desulphurisation
processes to remove obnoxious sulphur compounds or to remove sulphur as a pollutant of the exhaust in the subsequent use of
the fuel in a combustion process. Illustrations of simple and more complex refining schemes are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Whilst few refineries in Europe are as simple as that illustrated in Figure 2, the full complexities of Figure 3 are illustrative of
emerging refineries that will supply the fuels for the next decade. Further, more severe cracking can extend the availability of
distillate fractions at the cost of refining energy as shown in Figure 4.2
Matching production and marketing
An overall breakdown of products marketed and produced in the UK is shown in Figure 5 for the year 1977–1978 together
with the production energy costs, by which it can be seen that the present processing costs add some 4–5% of the crude
energy penalty to the straight distillation energy penalty.
It will be noted that the UK is an exporter of gas oil and Diesel fuel and a net importer of gasoline. In respect to the relative
use of gasoline and Gas Oil/Diesel Fuel, the UK differs markedly from the rest of Europe which uses very large volumes of Gas
Oil for domestic heating. Refining in the UK is in the process of accommodating and anticipating future trends in local
marketing. By substantially increasing cracking capacity the proportion of gasoline Naphtha to crude production in the UK
will increase from 16% to 30–35% over the next five to ten years. The associated quality changes of gasoline and Diesel fuel
that are expected to occur as a result of these developments are shown in Figures 6 and 7. Figure 6 shows options for various
lead levels which optimise refinery and vehicle fuel consumption. It is also relevant to note that lower lead content of gasoline
will mean higher engine fuel consumption.
This pattern of development necessarily assumes that fuel oil demand will decline as there is little sense in incurring costs
for importing residual fuels. The oil industry made its plans for this change of manufacturing pattern as a result of the fuel
crisis in 1974 when it seemed developments for expanded coal production and Nuclear energy would take over a greater part
of the load of electric power generation. Whilst low gas prices and low economic growth rate have absorbed much of the
demand growth for fuel oils expected in earlier years, the more important developments of coal and nuclear energy have not