Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning : Principles and Processing, Second Edition

655 Pages·2018·118.1 MB·English

by  Shan

Topographic Laser Ranging
and Scanning

Topographic Laser Ranging
and Scanning

Principles and Processing, Second  Edition

Edited by
Jie Shan
Charles K. Toth
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Shan, Jie, author. | Toth, Charles K., author.
Title: Topographic laser ranging and scanning : principles and processing, /
Jie Shan and Charles K. Toth.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017025409 | ISBN 9781498772273 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Lasers in surveying. | Topographical surveying. | Aerial
photogrammetry.
Classification: LCC TA579 .T66 2018 | DDC 526.9/8--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017025409
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
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Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ..........................................................................................................vii
Preface to the First Edition ...............................................................................................................ix
Editors ............................................................................................................................................xiii
Contributors .....................................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Laser Ranging, Profiling, and Scanning .............................................1
Gordon Petrie and Charles K. Toth
Chapter 2 Terrestrial Laser Scanners ..........................................................................................29
Gordon Petrie and Charles K. Toth
Chapter 3 Airborne and Spaceborne Laser Profilers and Scanners ...........................................89
Gordon Petrie and Charles K. Toth
Chapter 4 LiDAR Systems and Calibration ..............................................................................159
Aloysius Wehr
Chapter 5 Pulsed Laser Altimeter Ranging Techniques and Implications
for Terrain Mapping .................................................................................................201
David Harding
Chapter 6 Georeferencing Component of LiDAR Systems ......................................................221
Naser El-Sheimy
Chapter 7 Full-Waveform Analysis for Pulsed Laser Systems .................................................239
Uwe Stilla and Boris Jutzi
Chapter 8 Strip Adjustment .......................................................................................................259
Charles K. Toth and Zoltan Koppanyi
Chapter 9 Accuracy, Quality Assurance, and Quality Control of Light Detection
and Ranging Mapping ..............................................................................................291
Ayman Habib
Chapter 10 Data Management of Light Detection and Ranging ................................................313
Lewis Graham
v
vi Contents
Chapter 11 LiDAR Data Filtering and Digital Terrain Model Generation ................................349
Norbert Pfeifer and Gottfried Mandlburger
Chapter 12 Forest Inventory Using Laser Scanning ...................................................................379
Juha Hyyppä, Xiaowei Yu, Harri Kaartinen, Antero Kukko, Anttoni Jaakkola,
Xinlian Liang, Yunsheng Wang, Markus Holopainen, Mikko Vastaranta, and
Hannu Hyyppä
Chapter 13 Integration of LiDAR and Photogrammetric Data: Triangulation and
Orthorectification .....................................................................................................413
Ayman Habib
Chapter 14 Feature Extraction from Light Detection and Ranging Data in Urban Areas .........443
Frédéric Bretar
Chapter 15 Global Solutions to Building Segmentation and Reconstruction .............................459
Jie Shan, Jixing Yan, and Wanshou Jiang
Chapter 16 Building and Road Extraction from LiDAR Data ...................................................485
Franz Rottensteiner and Simon Clode
Chapter 17 Progressive Modeling of 3D Building Rooftops from Airborne
LiDAR and Imagery .................................................................................................523
Jaewook Jung and Gunho Sohn
Chapter 18 A Framework for Automated Construction of Building Models from
Airborne LiDAR Measurements ..............................................................................563
Keqi Zhang, Jianhua Yan, and Shu-Ching Chen
Chapter 19 Quality of Buildings Extracted from Airborne Laser Scanning Data—Results
of an Empirical Investigation on 3D Building Reconstruction ................................587
Eberhard Gülch, Harri Kaartinen, and Juha Hyyppä
Index ..............................................................................................................................................623
Preface to the Second Edition
There were two main reasons that motivated our decision to publish this 2nd edition of Topographic
Laser Ranging and Scanning. First, we wanted to incorporate the large array of new laser rang-
ing and scanning technologies that have become available for various scientific and engineering
applications since the 1st edition’s release in 2009. Examples of these technologies include various
small, low-cost, and lightweight Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors that are suitable for
handheld and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) applications; multispectral LiDAR sensors that col-
lect spectral and ranging information simultaneously; and single photon LiDAR and Geiger-mode
LiDAR, which became a reality since the 1st edition was published and now are being evaluated for
civilian use. In the past eight years, we have also witnessed profound developments in LiDAR data
processing techniques, largely due to the closer engagement between the remote sensing and com-
puter vision communities. As a result, more sophisticated processing methodologies were developed
and then implemented and utilized in mainstream production. The other reason that motivated us
to produce the 2nd edition was that its predecessor is very popular and remains at the top of the
best sellers in its category. In the past eight years or so, thousands of print and electronic copies
have been sold and downloaded. In addition, numerous LiDAR-related courses are utilizing the 1st
edition as their course text or reference, and it is among the most referenced materials for faculty,
research scientists, and students. The remainder of this preface presents updated content informa-
tion, summarizes and reflects on the changes and innovations.
Similar to the 1st edition, the 2nd edition is comprised of 19 chapters. A few chapters, which pri-
marily focus on fundamental theories, were not changed or updated at the discretion of the authors,
including Chapter 5, “Pulsed Laser Altimeter Ranging Techniques and Implications for Terrain
Mapping”; Chapter 6, “Georeferencing Component of LiDAR Systems”; and Chapter 14, “Feature
Extraction from LiDAR Data in Urban Areas.”
All the other chapters were subject to updates and revisions to varying extents. Largely
following the same structure as the 1st edition, Chapter 1 serves as an “Introduction to Laser
Ranging, Profiling, and Scanning” with refinements and revision in the content as well. Chapters 2
and 3 are in reverse order of the 1st edition. Chapter 2 presents an updated and enhanced discussion
on “Terrestrial Laser Scanners.” Although Chapter 3 is still focused on “Airborne and Spaceborne
Laser Profilers and Scanners” (Chapter 2 in the 1st edition), a number of new sensor systems are
introduced with illustrations. In particular, recently introduced UAV-based LiDAR systems were
added as new content. The text was revised in Chapter 4, but airborne LiDAR systems and cali-
bration are still its focus. Chapter 7 enhances the discussions on the principles and fundamentals
beyond small-footprint pulsed laser systems by revising the text and including new application
examples. Chapter 8 still has a discussion on “Strip Adjustment”, in which error sources and selec-
tion of overlapping areas are highlighted and surface modeling and representations are regrouped.
The scope of Chapter 9 is unchanged (i.e., the quality control and quality assurance aspects of
LiDAR mapping); however, the text and illustrations have been modified. Modifications were made
in Chapter 10 to reflect a number of new developments in LiDAR data management, such as the
latest LiDAR point cloud standard (LAS 1.4) and cloud hosting services (e.g., Microsoft Azure
and Amazon Web Services). Although its focus remains on LiDAR data filtering, Chapter 11 pres-
ents revised discussions and a number of new examples and illustrations for digital terrain model
(DTM) generation. Chapter 12 extends from airborne platforms to terrestrial and mobile ones to
reflect the state of the art of forest inventory management. Following the same structure as the 1st
edition, Chapter 13 discusses the integration of LiDAR and image data with the purpose of their
precise registration and orthoimage production. Chapter 15 presents a new development of “Global
Solutions to Building Segmentation and Reconstruction” from point clouds. Although the proce-
dural descriptions of the previous edition were not changed in Chapter 16, a theoretical framework
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
of context-based classification for building and road extraction was added. Chapter 17 presents a
new development in progressive reconstruction of 3D building roof tops over time using multisen-
sor data. Chapter 18 includes an updated workflow and revised discussions for building extraction
and reconstruction from airborne LiDAR point clouds. Finally, Chapter 19 was revised to reflect the
current test results of professional organizations.
The general structure of the 2nd edition is unchanged from the 1st edition and can be grouped
into four topic areas. Part I, LiDAR Systems and Fundamentals (Chapters 1 through 3) presents an
introduction and summary of various LiDAR systems and their fundamentals. Part II, Operational
Principles and LiDAR Systems (Chapters 4 through 7) addresses the operational principles of the
different components and ranging methods of LiDAR systems. Part III, Geometric Processing of
LiDAR Data (Chapters 8 through 10) discusses the subsequent geometric processing of LiDAR
data, in particular, with respect to quality, accuracy, and standards. Part IV, Information Extraction
from LiDAR Data (Chapters 11 through 19) addresses the theories and practices of information
extraction from LiDAR data, including terrain surface generation, forest inventory, orthoimage gen-
eration, building reconstruction, and road extraction.
The composition and publication of this 2nd edition was an endeavor that lasted almost two years
after an early survey of the contributors revealed that the majority of the chapters needed certain
updates. We, the editors, are very grateful to all the authors that agreed to include their most recent
developments and carefully prepared their revised or new write-ups. Without them, it would not
have been possible to reflect the state of the art in LiDAR remote sensing. Moreover, we are also
highly indebted to the CRC staff for being patient and persistent in helping us and the authors to
complete this book project.
Jie Shan
Purdue University
Charles K. Toth
The Ohio State University, May 2017
Preface to the First Edition
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is probably the most significant technology introduced in
mainstream topographic mapping in the past decade. The main advantage of this technique is that
it provides a direct method for 3D data collection. Furthermore, it is highly accurate because of
the millimeter- and centimeter-level laser ranging accuracy and precise sensor platform orientation
supported by an integrated position and orientation system (POS). Unlike the traditional pho-
togrammetric methods, LiDAR directly collects an accurately georeferenced set of dense point
clouds, which can be almost directly used in basic applications. However, the full exploitation of
LiDAR’s potentials and capabilities challenges for new data processing methods that are funda-
mentally different from the ones used in traditional photogrammetry. Over the past decade, there
have been many significant developments in this field, mainly resulting from multidisciplinary
research, including computer vision, computer graphics, electrical engineering, and photogramme-
try. Consequently, the conventional image-based photogrammetry and vision are gradually adapt-
ing to a new subject, which is primarily concerned with point clouds data collection, calibration,
registration, and information extraction.
Although there have been many studies and applications since the introduction of LiDAR, a
comprehensive compilation is still missing that (1) describes the basic principles and fundamentals
in laser ranging and scanning; (2) reflects the state of the art of laser scanning technologies, systems,
and data collection methods; and (3) presents the data processing methods and recent developments
reported in different subject areas, which is probably the most challenging task. It is not an over-
statement that such a collection has been long overdue. The primary objective of this book is to meet
these needs and present a manual to the LiDAR research, practice, and education communities.
The chapters in this book consist of four major parts, each addressing different topic areas in
LiDAR technology and data processing. Part I, Chapters 1 through 3, primarily presents a brief
introduction and a comprehensive summary of LiDAR systems. After a concise introduction to
the laser fundamentals, Chapter 1 describes the two laser ranging methods (timed pulse method
and phase comparison method) and the principles of laser profiling and scanning. The issues and
properties of laser ranging techniques, such as safety concerns, returned power, beam divergence,
and reflectivity, are also discussed. Chapters 2 and 3 present a rather comprehensive description of
the airborne and spaceborne laser devices (profilers and scanners) and terrestrial scanners. Each of
these two chapters covers a brief historical review, the taxonomy, and a thorough discussion on the
components, working principles, and main specifications of the LiDAR equipment.
Part II addresses the operational principles of different units and ranging methods in a LiDAR
system. Chapter 4 discusses the working principles of LiDAR systems and supporting devices and
their synchronization. The theory and practices for georegistration and calibration of the boresight
are also presented, along with testing examples. Finally, a discussion is offered on the working steps
required to produce a digital terrain model (DTM), including flight planning, equipment installa-
tion, and data preprocessing. In order to most effectively use the products generated from LiDAR
systems, Chapter 5 discusses the operational principles of LiDAR systems and the resulting effects
on the acquired data. Laser ranging methods, including waveform recording and single-photon
detection approaches, are examined. The relationships between ranging methods, the instrument
parameters, and the character of the resulting elevation data are also considered, with emphasis
on the measurement of ground topography beneath vegetation cover and characterization of forest
canopy structure. Chapter 6 starts with an introduction to direct georeferencing technology. The
discussion is focused on the analytics of the inertial navigation system (INS), which is important
for achieving quality airborne LiDAR data. The principles for the integration of INS, global posi-
tioning system (GPS), and LiDAR are also presented. Chapter 7 is about small-footprint pulsed
laser systems with emphasis on full-waveform analysis. Addressed with details in this chapter are
ix