Title Uchinaaguchi Language Reclamation in the Martial Arts Community in Okinawa and Abroad ...

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Uchinaaguchi Language Reclamation in the Martial Arts
Title
Community in Okinawa and Abroad( Text_全文 )
Author(s) Kathrine, May Samantha
Citation
Issue Date 2015-03-19
URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12000/30816
Rights
Uchinaaguchi Language Reclamation in the Martial Arts Community in Okinawa and Abroad

Thesis

Submitted to
The University of the Ryukyus
for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the

Department of Comparative Regional Culture
Graduate School of Human Languages and Cultures

by

Samantha Kathrine May
128091B
March, 2016

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Statement of Authorship/ Originality and Ethical Research Standards

I, Samantha May, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. All sources of information
as well as any contents from another author's work contained herein have been acknowledged as
references. This thesis has not previously been submitted, in whole or part, to fulfill the
requirements for any other degree. All research in aid of this thesis was conducted according to
ethical principles as laid out by the University of the Ryukyus and the World Medical Association's
Declaration of Helsinki (2013) regarding research involving human subjects.

Samantha Kathrine May
March, 2016

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’んまりじま ぬ くとぅば わっしーねー、くに ん わっしーん。

’生り島 ぬ 言葉 忘ねー、国 ん 忘ん。

Forgetting your native tongue means forgetting your country.

(The Okinawan Mind in Proverbs, Zenko Shimabukuro, 1983, p. 260)

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Map of Okinawa and The Ryukyuan Languages….................................. ....... p. 19
Figure 1.2 Uchinaaguchi in The Macro-Altaic Language Family.............................. ....... p. 27
Figure 1.3: The Language Hierarchy in Japan........................................................... ....... p. 39
Figure 1.4: The Language Web.................................................................................. ....... p. 43
Figure 1.5 The Language Hierarchy vs. the Language Web...................................... ....... p. 45

Figure 2.1: Potential Motivational Factors for Okinawan Martial Arts Practitioners
in Uchinaaguchi Uchinaaguchi Based on Csizér and Dörnyei’s (2005) Motvational
Factors…………………………………………………………………................. ....... p. 50
Figure 2.2: The Components of Wenger's social theory of learning.......................... ...... p. 61
Figure 2.3: The Language Maintenance Net.............................................................. ....... p. 63

Figure 3.1: FOMA Desired Areas of Uchinaaguchi Language Use Within
Okinawan Martial Arts Classes by Percentage of Participants.................................. ....... p. 83
Figure 3.2: JOMA Desired Areas of Uchinaaguchi Language Use Within
Okinawan Martial Arts Classes by Percentage of Participants.................................. ....... p. 84
Figure 3.3 A comparison of JOMA and FOMA preferences in Okinawa and abroad ....... p. 85
Figure 3.4: The Uchinaaguchi Karate and Kobudo Handbook in Italian................... ....... p. 88
Figure 3.5: Uchinaaguchi Orthography Using Hiragana and Roman Letters............ ....... p. 90

Figure 4.1: The Transmission of Knowledge in the Okinawan Martial Arts Community ....... p. 105
Figure 4.2: Japanese perceptions of Uchinaaguchi interest among youth, residents
of other prefectures, foreigners and foreign martial artists........................................ ....... p. 125
Figure 4.3: Perception of Uchinaaguchi interest by age group of respondents.......... ....... p. 126
Figure 4.4: Okinawans' perceptions of Uchinaaguchi interest compared to actual
interest of these groups............................................................................................... ....... p. 126
Figure 4.5: Possible Motivations for Learning Uchinaaguchi………………………….. ....... p. 136
Figure 4.6: Integrativeness as an Uchinaaguchi Language Learning Motivation
Among Japanese and Foreign Okinawan Martial Arts Practitioners......................... ....... p. 136
Figure 4.7: Martial Arts-Related Instrumental Uchinaaguchi Learning Motivations
Among FOMA and JOMA Participants.................................................................... ....... p. 139
Figure 4.8: Non-Martial Arts Related Uchinaaguchi Learning Motivations Among
FOMA and JOMA Participants…….......................................................................... ....... p. 140
Figure 4.9: Impressions of Okinawa by nationality and martial arts participation.... ....... p. 144
Figure 4.10: Foreign Martial Artists’ Desire to Travel to and Live in Okinawa….. ....... p. 145
Figure 4.11: Okinawan Cultural Interest Among FOMA and JOMA as a Factor in
Uchinaaguchi Learning Motivation........................................................................... ....... p. 147
Figure 4.12 FOMA and JOMA perceptions of language learning as a fun activity... ....... p. 151
Figure 4.13: FOMA and JOMA participants’ linguistic self confidence.................... ...... p. 152
Figure 4.14: Foreign Martial Artist Interest in an Uchinaaguchi Master-and-
Apprentice Program................................................................................................... ....... p. 155
Figure 4.15: Linguistic knowledge of Uchinaaguchi according to martial arts
participation................................................................................................................ ....... p. 156
Figure 4.16: Self Assessed Uchinaaguchi and Japanese ability by martial arts
participation……………………………………………………………………….... ....... p. 159
Figure 4.17: FOMA and JOMA results of the Uchinaaguchi pre-test…………………. …... p. 161

Figure 5.1: Initial results after using the Uchinaaguchi word sheets......................... ….. p. 175
Figure 5.2: FOMA self-described motivations for using the Uchinaaguchi word
sheets……………………………………………………………………………….. …... p. 177

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Figure 5.3: Foreign Martial Artists' Desired Areas of Uchinaaguchi Use by Area of
Martial Arts Class in Home Countries, a comparison of round one and round two
results......................................................................................................................... …... p. 178
Figure 5.4: Foreign Martial Artists' Desired Areas of Uchinaaguchi Use by Area of
Martial Arts Class in Okinawa, a comparison of round one and round two results... …... p. 178
Figure 5.5: Reported Benefits of Using Okinawan in Martial Arts Practice.............. …... p. 180
Figure 5.6: Comparison of Uchinaaguchi Pre-test and Post-test Scores…………… …... p. 182
Figure 5.7: Differences in Round One and Round Two Survey FOMA Populations …... p. 184

Figure 6.1: Factors that may Encourage the Use of Uchinaaguchi in Okinawan
Martial Arts Practice………………………………………………………………... …... p. 192
Figure 6.2: Behaviours that May Facilitate Uchinaaguchi Learning in a Martial
Arts Setting................................................................................................................. …... p. 192
Figure 6.3: FOMA Interest in Uchinaaguchi Learning Methods…………………... …... p. 194
Figure 6.4: The first Peoples' Council 8 Steps to Language Revitalization............... …... p. 196

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Acknowledgements

This research would not have been possible without the kindness of a great number of individuals
and the generous financial support of MEXT. First of all, I would like to acknowledge my
Uchinaaguchi informants and other contributors to the project:

Kakinohana Keishyun Sensei Higaonna Morio Sensei
Kinjo Takashi Sensei Steve Hegarty Sensei
Masami Sensei Nigel Sensei and Students
Kinjo Masanori Sensei Kikugawa Masanobu Sensei
Takamiyagi Sensei Velemir Yukic
Hokama Tetsuhiro Sensei Mamoud Bambouyani Sensei
Tamashiro Masao Sensei Fija Byron
Tamayose Hidemi Sensei The students of the Meibukan dojo
Kanemoto Madoka Sensei The students of the Kakinohana dojo
Kina Ikue Sensei The students of the Kinjo Takashi dojo
Yagi Meitatsu The students of the Hokama dojo
Yagi Akihito Sensei The students of the Higaonna dojo
Yagi Akihiro Sensei The students of the East Sooke Karate Club,
Miyagi Takeshi-san Canada
Miyagi Masako-san The Students of the Tooting Karate Club, UK
Dan Antonsen Sensei The Students of the Tel Aviv dojo, Israel
Yiftach Raphael Govreen Sensei The Students of Elite Karate, UK
Linda Marchant Sensei Sir Stephan Chan
George May Sensei Miguel de Luz
Kudaka Sensei The Okinawan Traditional Karate Liaison Bureau
Sara-Rivka Sensei and Others

I would like to also thank my supervisor, Ishihara Masahide for his patience, understanding, good
humour, and excellent advice, as well as my other committee members Kina Ikue and Miyahira
Katsuyaki for their support, and my family for coming to Japan and tolerating my unusual
schedule.

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Uchinaaguchi Language Reclamation in the Martial Arts Community in Okinawa and Abroad

Table of Contents

Statement of Authorship/ Originality and Ethical Research Standards………………………....p. 2
Opening quotation……………………………………………………………………………....p. 3
List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………...p. 4
Acknowledgements…………………..........................................................................................p. 6

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Why Uchinaaguchi and Martial Arts?................................................................................. p. 11

1.2 Thesis Structure................................................................................................................... p. 15

1.3 Definitions and Language Use............................................................................................ p. 15

1.4 Uchinaaguchi in Okinawa: History and Language Shift..................................................... p. 18
1.4.1 The History of Okinawan Language p. 18
Shift........................................................... p. 22
1.4.2 Uchinaaguchi as an Endangered p. 26
Language……………………………………..
1.4.3 Uchinaaguchi: Language or p. 29
Dialect?................................................................... p. 29
p. 32
1.5 Approach: Post Colonialism, Minority Languages, and Feminist Theory.......................... p. 35
1.5.1 Post p. 37
Colonialism..................................................................................................
1.5.2 Black Feminism and Third Wave p. 46
Feminism........................................................
1.5.3 Language Rights as Human
Rights...................................................................... ..
1.5.4 Situated Knowledge: The Language Hierarchy and the Language Web..............

1.6 Researcher Background.......................................................................................................

Chapter Two: Theory and Literature Review

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………... p. 49
2.1 Theoretical Components: Theorizing Uchinaaguchi Reclamation in the Martial Arts....... p. 49

2.1.1 Second Language Acquisition and Methodology................................................. p. 49
i. p. 49
Motivation..................................................................................................... p. 53
ii. Total Physical Response p. 57
(TPR)..................................................................... p. 60
iii. Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)............................................ p. 61
iv. Social Learning Theory and Communities of
Practice.................................. p. 63
2.1.2 Components of Successful Language Revitalization p. 64
Efforts…………………... p. 64
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2.1.21 Successful Language Revitalization Components in Uchinaaguchi p. 64
Reclamation in the Martial Arts............................................................................ p. 64
i. CLIL and p. 65
Immersion...................................................................................... p. 65
ii. Combining Language Use with Cultural
Activities...................................... p. 65
iii. Total Physical Response (TPR)…………………………………………….. p. 65
iv. Community Support and Parental p. 66
Involvement….……………………...… p. 69
v. Language Learning p. 71
Materials…………………………………………..…..
vi. Domain(s) in which to use the
language…………………………..….…....

2.2 Literature and Program Review: Language Maintenance and Revitalization....................
2.2.1 General Language Maintenance and Revitalization Literature…………………
2.2.2 Literature Review and Language Revitalization through Cultural Activities......
2.2.3 Overview of Uchinaaguchi Revitalization Efforts...............................................
2.2.4 Uchinaaguchi Language Maintenance Through Okinawan Martial
Arts……….

Chapter Three: Testing Uchinaaguchi Reclamation in the Okinawan Martial Arts Community

3.1 Research Purpose and Questions......................................................................................... p. 73

3.2 Methods............................................................................................................................... p. 74
3.2.1 Overview.............................................................................................................. p. 74
3.2.2 Interviews............................................................................................................. p. 76
3.2.3 Surveys................................................................................................................. p. 78
3.2.4 Participant Observation........................................................................................ p. 80
3.2.5 Electronic Correspondence.................................................................................. p. 80

3.3 The Development of the Uchinaaguchi Martial Arts Word Sheets..................................... p. 81
3.3.1 Introduction……………………………........................................................... p. 81
3.3.2 Martial Arts Community's Preferences for Language Use and Word Sheet
Content……………………………………………………………………………….. p. 81
3.3.3 Issues in Development and Translation............................................................... p. 86
3.3.4 Types of Word Sheets........................................................................................... p. 95
3.3.5 The Uchinaaguchi Word Sheets: Present and Future…………………………... p. 100

Chapter Four: The International Okinawan Martial Arts Community as Community
of Practice

4.1 Description of the Okinanwan Martial Arts Community.................................................... p. 101
4.1.1 Formation of the Martial Arts Community: Okinawan Martial Arts Abroad...... p. 101
4.1.2 Communities of Practice……….......................................................................... p. 102
4.1.3 The Okinawan Martial Arts Community: Structure and Identity......................... p. 104
4.1.4 The Domain of Okinawan Martial Arts: Okinawan Centred Knowledge,
Lexicon, and Symbols................................................................................................... p. 106
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4.1.5 The Practice of Okinawan Martial Arts: Transmission of Knowledge through
Cross-Cultural Encounters............................................................................................ p. 108
4.1.6 Boundaries and Borderlands in Okinawan Martial Arts...................................... p. 110
4.1.7 Okinawan Martial Arts and the Promotion of Peace............................................ p. 111
4.1.8 Problems in the Martial Arts Community............................................................ p. 113
4.1.9 The Role of the Martial Arts Community of Practice in Uchinaaguchi
Reclamation………………………………………………………………………….. p. 115

4.2 The Sociolinguistic Context of Uchinaaguchi Use in Okinawa and the Martial Arts
Community.......................................................................................................................... p. 116
4.2.1 Factors Affecting the Current Usage of Uchinaaguchi in Okinawan Martial
Arts……………………………………………………………………………………. p. 117
4.2.2 Current Uchinaaguchi Usage in Okinawan Martial Arts..................................... p. 129

4.3 The Martial Arts Community: Japanese and Foreign Participants...................................... p. 131
4.3.1 Project Participants: General Description and Martial Arts Involvement............ p. 131
4.3.2 Motivational Factors for Uchinaaguchi Learning................................................ p. 135
i. p. 135
Integrativeness.………………………..………………………………….. p. 138
ii. p. 144
Instrumentality………………………..………………………………….. p. 146
iii. Attitudes Towards L2 p. 149
Speakers……...…………………………………… p. 151
iv. Cultural Interest p. 152
…………………...…………………………………...…
v. Vitality of L2 p. 153
Community……………...………………………………….
vi. Linguistic Milieu……………………………………………………….. p. 156
vii. Linguistic Self-Confidence……………………………………………….. p. 163
viii. An Additional Language Learning Motivation: Linguistic and Cultural
Preservation……………………………………………………………….

4.3.3 Uchinaaguchi Knowledge and Pretest.................................................................
4.3.4 Initial Response to Using Uchinaaguchi in Martial Arts.....................................

Chapter Five: Initial Results of Using Uchinaaguchi in the Martial Arts Community

5.1 Post-Use MAC Response to Uchinaaguchi Word Sheets and Lexicon............................... p. 168
5.1.1 Patterns of Martial Arts-Related Uchinaaguchi Use............................................ p. 168
5.1.2 Participants’ Attitudes to Uchinaaguchi and Okinawan Culture: A Comparison of
Round 1 and 2 Survey Responses ……………………………………..……......... p. 174
5.1.3 Post-Word Sheet Use: FOMA Participants’ Motivations, Areas of
Uchinaaguchi Interest, and Reported Benefits……………...………………….. p. 177
5.1.4 Increased Uchinaaguchi Knowledge? A comparison of Uchinaaguchi
Pre-test and Post-test p. 181
scores…………………………………………………………….
p. 182
5.2 Analysis of Results.............................................................................................................

5.3 Theoretical Analysis of Uchinaaguchi Reclamation in the MAC: The Importance of the p. 185
Community of Practice Model…………………………..………………………………..

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