They Fought as Bravely as Any American Fighting Men

248 Pages·2014·1.06 MB·English

‘They Fought as Bravely as Any American Fighting Men’:
Conservative Republicans and the Attempt to Save American Exceptionalism
from the Loss in Vietnam, 1975-1991
by
Jean-Marie Stevens

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy

Approved October 2014 by
the Graduate Supervisory Committee

Kyle Longley, Chair
James R. Rush
Keith D. Miller

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
December 2014
©2014 Jean-Marie Stevens
All Rights Reserved
ABSTRACT
The historiography of the Vietnam War’s effect on American society and culture often
focuses on the public image of its veterans. Historians and other scholars credit liberal
and apolitical Vietnam veterans for reshaping Americans’ opinions of those who served.
These men deserve significant recognition for these changes; however, historians
consistently overlook another aspect this topic. Conservative Republicans in the mid-
1970s through the early 1990s made a concerted effort to alter how Americans viewed
Vietnam veterans and their performance in the conflict. The few scholars who have
examined this issue suggest conservatives wanted to quell Americans’ distaste for
military endeavors after the loss in Southeast Asia, a concept known as the Vietnam
Syndrome.
This dissertation argues conservatives’ efforts were more complex than simply
wanting to break down the syndrome. The war and its loss threatened their
understandings of the exceptional nature of the United States. This notion of
exceptionalism stemmed from the immense success of the country territorially,
economically, and in the international system, accomplishments realized with the
assistance of the American military. The performance of the military establishment and
its soldiers in the Vietnam War and the negative international and domestic opinions of
the country in the wake of this loss threatened those elements of American success that
conservatives viewed as imperative to maintaining the idea of exceptionalism and the
power of the United States. As a result, a disparate group of conservative Republicans in
the post-Vietnam era attempted to alter American understandings of the nation’s martial
tradition and the concept of martial masculinity, both ravaged by the war. This
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dissertation adds another layer to the historiography of the effects of the Vietnam War by
arguing that conservatives not only shored up Americans’ belief in the martial tradition
and reshaped the definition of martial masculinity, but that they also significantly
influenced Americans’ newfound positive opinions of Vietnam veterans.

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Dedicated to the memory of

My beloved grandmother
Frieda Marie Andreä Steele
July 16, 1891 – December 7, 1981
and
My cherished uncle
Lloyd Norman Stevens
November 19, 1922 – August 27, 2011

For all of my ancestors whose hard work afforded me opportunities they never had
themselves.

I also dedicate this to those who lived the story of the Vietnam War; those who served,
perished, suffered and continue to suffer on both sides of the conflict. Regardless of our
nationalities or viewpoints on the conflict, our shared humanity unites us.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My biggest champions in life are my parents, Alvin and Bernice. Their love and
guidance left me with a great sense of comfort, love, and peace as a child. However, it is
their support and friendship in my adulthood that has been the greater gift. Without their
encouragement, I never would have decided to take on this endeavor. Dad, I thank you
for being my life-long kindred spirit. Mom, I humbly acknowledge that you have given
too much of yourself for me. I am grateful that you both are here to share this with me.
My extended family, both living and gone, are a part of my thoughts daily. I take
great pride in the histories of my late grandparents Frieda, Walter, Alvin, and Grace,
along with those of the Stevens, Steele, Andreä, Aubuchon, Horner, and Hoefle families.
The stories of their lives, often told with the backdrop of my beloved home of St. Louis,
mesmerized me as a child and created my love of history. My life is richer because of all
of you. I also thank my aunt, Delores Steele, for her support of my education. It is not
lost on me that you would have enjoyed the same chance.
I owe an immense debt to gratitude to Arizona State University for funding me
throughout my graduate career, as well as to my dissertation committee, comprised of
admirable scholars and more importantly admirable people. My advisor, Kyle Longley,
supported me from the moment I met him. His belief in my scholarship is outmatched
only by his patience and willingness to represent me in this process. There are far too
many things for which to thank him. James Rush, your intellect and eloquence inspire me
to be a better scholar. Learning the history of Southeast Asia from you signifies some of
the most valuable and perspective-altering moments of my graduate career. Thank you
for revealing more of the world to me. Keith Miller, I am happy and thankful you were so
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receptive to working with me. During my time in the Learning Community, I spent many
afternoons standing outside of your classroom absorbing your teaching style; it had an
immense influence on mine.
A professor once told me the friends you make in graduate school will be some of
your most enduring and important relationships. He could not have told a greater truth. I
want to thank my closest friend and confidante, Jon Flashnick, simply for being himself.
He is an extraordinary friend who was supposed to be my competition, but turned out to
be my greatest source of advice and support. My assignment to the same office as Jon
and Karen Napoli was an incredible stroke of fate. Karen, words could not adequately
describe how thankful I am that our lives intersected. Jason Corbett, your wisdom and
ability to listen have led to some of the most fulfilling conversations of my life.
My “dissertation buddy” Bonnie Thompson, as well as Kristin Youngbull and
Chelsea Mead, are the scholars to whom I was closest during the dissertation process.
Your projects inspired me, while your encouragement meant I was not enduring hours in
front of the computer screen alone. Marco Cabrera Geserick, our post-seminar chats over
dinner were the highlight of my week in our first semester. Your presence in my daily life
is missed. Brooke Schedneck, thank you for always making me laugh.
Several professors deserve mention for their guidance and support. Lynn Stoner,
your grace and friendship are a treasure, and I owe my venture into the graduate program
to you. Catherine O’Donnell, you are my model for staying true to my personality in the
classroom. W. Dirk Raat, Fara Darland, and Robert Winters thanks for the spark.
Prudence Manuel, my first grade teacher, I am forever grateful to you for recognizing my
abilities and being my first model of an educator.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
2 AN EXCEPTION TO THE WORLD: THE CREATION OF AMERICAN
EXCEPTIONALISM .............................................................................................12
The Origins of the Exceptionalism Notion ................................................13
The Establishment of a Strong Martial Tradition ......................................17
The Solidification of the Exceptionalism Myth .........................................27
The Devolution of Exceptionalism and its Corollaries ..............................32
3 RESTORING THE SACREDNESS OF MILITARY TRADITION: WILLIAM
WESTMORELAND’S MISSION TO DELIVER THE AMERICAN MILITARY
FROM THE VIETNAM WAR ..............................................................................38
The Making of a Loyal General and Adherent to the Military Tradition ..40
Image is Everything Shoring Up America’s Perception of the Military ...43
Revisionism: Controlling the History of the Military’s Role in the War ..49
The Valorous Man: Redeeming the Image of the Vietnam Veteran to
Salvage the Martial Tradition ....................................................................56
4 USING THE PEN TO STRENGTHEN THE SWORD: JAMES WEBB’S
FIGHT TO SAVE MARTIAL MANHOOD IN THE WAKE OF THE VIETNAM
WAR ....................................................................................................................73
The Origins of a Martial Man ....................................................................76
A New Martial Man: Recapturing the Image of the Vietnam Veteran .....80
The Successful Veteran: Establishing the Masculinity of the Warrior at
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CHAPTER Page
Home ..........................................................................................................88
The Noble Warrior: Solidifying the Masculine Honor of the Vietnam
Soldier ........................................................................................................95
5 SALVAGING THE AMERICAN MARTIAL TRADITION: THE REAGAN
ADMINISTRATION AND THE POSITIONING OF THE VIETNAM SOLDIER
WITHIN THE NATION’S FOLKLORE OF MILITARISM .............................109
Putting the Valorous Veteran Front and Center: The Symbolism of the
Congressional Medal of Honor and the Vietnam Veterans Leadership
Program ....................................................................................................113
Priming the Public and Avoiding Controversy: Reagan and the Vietnam
Veterans Memorial Fund .........................................................................123
Saving the Martial Tradition Through Symbolism: The Tomb of the
Unknown Soldier .....................................................................................133
6 SAVING THE ‘CITY ON A HILL’: NATIONAL REVIEW’S CRUSADE TO
RECLAIM AMERICAN EXCEPTIONALISM AFTER THE WITHDRAWAL
FROM VIETNAM ...............................................................................................147
The Intellectual Power of William F. Buckley and National Review ......149
Richard Nixon: National Review’s Questionable Savior of American
Exceptionalism .........................................................................................152
Ronald Reagan: National Review’s New Hope for the Salvation of
American Exceptionalism ........................................................................161
The American Military of the Gulf War: National Review’s Savior of
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CHAPTER Page
Exceptionalism .........................................................................................174
6 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................183
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................189

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