Thermal physics of the atmosphere

484 Pages·2010·3.385 MB·English

by  Maarten H P Ambaum

BorisM.Smirnov
FundamentalsofIonizedGases
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Boris M. Smirnov
Fundamentals of Ionized Gases
Basic Topics in Plasma Physics
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V
Contents
Preface XI
References XII
BooksforPlasmaPhysics XII
1 GeneralConceptsinPhysicsofExcitedandIonizedGases 1
1.1 IdealPlasma 1
1.1.1 PlasmaasaStateofMatter 1
1.1.2 TheHistoryoftheStudyofElectricity 5
1.1.3 MethodsofPlasmaGeneration 7
1.1.4 ChargedParticlesinaGas 9
1.1.5 DefinitionofaPlasma 12
1.1.6 OscillationsofPlasmaElectrons 13
1.1.7 InteractionofChargedParticlesinanIdealPlasma 14
1.1.8 MicrofieldsinanIdealPlasma 15
1.1.9 BeamPlasma 19
1.2 StatisticsofAtomicParticlesinExcitedandWeaklyIonizedGases 22
1.2.1 DistributionFunctionofaSystemofIdenticalParticles 22
1.2.2 TheBoltzmannDistribution 23
1.2.3 StatisticalWeightofaStateandDistributionsofParticlesinGases 25
1.2.4 TheMaxwellDistribution 27
1.2.5 TheSahaDistribution 28
1.2.6 DissociativeEquilibriuminMolecularGases 29
1.2.7 LawsofBlackbodyRadiation 29
1.2.8 IonizationEquilibriuminaPlasmawithParticles 31
1.2.9 ThermoemissionofElectrons 33
1.2.10 TheTreanorEffect 34
1.2.11 NormalDistribution 36
1.3 RarefiedandDensePlasmas 38
1.3.1 CriteriaforanIdealPlasma 38
1.3.2 ConditionsforIdealEquilibriumPlasmas 39
1.3.3 InstabilityofTwo-ComponentStronglyCoupledPlasmas 41
1.3.4 SpecialFeaturesofStronglyCoupledPlasmas 42
1.3.5 QuantumPlasmas 44
VI Contents
1.3.6 IdealElectron–GasandIon–GasSystems 46
1.3.7 DecreaseoftheAtomicIonizationPotentialinPlasmas 47
1.3.8 SpectrumofAtomsinaPlasma 49
References 51
2 ElementaryProcessesinExcitedandIonizedGases 53
2.1 ElasticCollisionofAtomicParticles 53
2.1.1 ElementaryActofCollisionsofParticlesinaPlasma 53
2.1.2 ModelofHardSpheres 57
2.1.3 CollisionProcessesInvolvingClusters 60
2.1.4 CrossSectionofCapture 62
2.1.5 TotalCrossSectionofScattering 63
2.1.6 GaseousStateCriterion 64
2.1.7 ElasticCollisionsofElectronswithAtoms 65
2.1.8 ElasticScatteringofChargedParticlesinaPlasma 68
2.1.9 ElasticIon–AtomCollisionandResonantChargeExchange 70
2.2 InelasticProcessesInvolvingElectrons 77
2.2.1 ExcitationandQuenchingofAtomsbyElectronImpact 77
2.2.2 AtomIonizationbyElectronImpact 81
2.2.3 ThreeBodyRecombinationofElectronsandIons 84
2.2.4 AutoionizingandAutodetachingStatesinCollisionProcesses 86
2.2.5 DissociativeRecombination 90
2.2.6 DielectronicRecombination 92
2.2.7 AttachmentofElectronstoMolecules 93
2.3 ElementaryProcessesInvolvingIonsandAtoms 96
2.3.1 SlowInelasticCollisionsofHeavyAtomicParticles 96
2.3.2 ThreeBodyCollisionProcessesInvolvingIons 98
2.3.3 ThreeBodyProcessesInvolvingExcitedAtoms 100
2.3.4 AssociativeIonizationandthePenningProcess 103
2.3.5 PairwiseRecombinationofPositiveandNegativeIons 107
2.3.6 ProcessesInvolvingFormationofaLong-LivedComplex 108
2.3.7 TypesofElementaryProcesses 112
2.4 RadiativeProcessesinExcitedandIonizedGases 112
2.4.1 InteractionofRadiationwithAtomicSystems 112
2.4.2 SpontaneousandStimulatedEmission 113
2.4.3 RadiativeTransitionsinAtoms 115
2.4.4 PhotoionizationandPhotorecombinationProcesses 117
2.4.5 BremsstrahlunginIonizedGasesInvolvingElectrons 120
2.4.6 BroadeningofSpectralLines 123
2.4.7 CrossSectionandAbsorptionCoefficientforResonantPhotons 126
References 129
3 PhysicalKineticsofIonizedGases 133
3.1 KineticsofAtomicParticlesinGasesandPlasmas 133
3.1.1 TheBoltzmannKineticEquation 133
3.1.2 CollisionIntegralforGasAtoms 134
Contents VII
3.1.3 EquilibriumDistributionofGasAtoms 136
3.1.4 CollisionIntegralforElectronsinaGas 137
3.1.5 CollisionIntegralforFastElectronsinanElectronGas 140
3.1.6 TheLandauCollisionIntegral 142
3.2 KineticsofElectronsinaGasinanExternalElectricField 145
3.2.1 KineticsofElectronsinaGasResultingfromElasticCollisions
withAtoms 145
3.2.2 EvolutionofElectronsinanAtomicGasinanElectricField 149
3.2.3 ElectronsinaGasintheRegimeofHighElectronNumberDensity 151
3.2.4 ConductivityofanIonizedGasandaPlasma 155
3.2.5 ElectronsinaGasinanAlternatingElectromagneticField 158
3.2.6 KineticsofAtomExcitationinIonizedGasesinanElectricField 159
3.3 RadiationTransferandKineticsofExcitationsinaPlasma 168
3.3.1 EquilibriumofResonantlyExcitedAtomsinaPlasma 168
3.3.2 StepwiseIonizationofAtoms 169
3.3.3 ExcitedAtomsinaHeliumPlasma 170
3.3.4 EmissionfromaFlatPlasmaLayer 173
3.3.5 PropagationofResonantRadiationinaDensePlasma 175
3.3.6 ResonantEmissionfromaNonuniformPlasmaandSelf-Reversal
ofSpectralLines 178
3.3.7 RadiationfromtheSolarPhotosphere 181
3.3.8 ExcitationsinaPhotoresonantPlasma 184
3.3.9 KineticsofElectronsandIonizationProcesses
inPhotoresonantPlasma 188
References 192
4 TransportPhenomenainIonizedGases 195
4.1 HydrodynamicsofIonizedGases 195
4.1.1 MacroscopicGasEquations 195
4.1.2 EquationofStateforaGas 198
4.1.3 TheNavier–StokesEquation 199
4.1.4 MacroscopicEquationforIonMotioninaGas 200
4.1.5 TheChapman–EnskogApproximationforIonMobilityinGas 201
4.1.6 ExcitationofanIonizedGasinanElectricField 202
4.2 TransportPhenomenainNeutralGases 204
4.2.1 TransportofParticlesinGases 204
4.2.2 DiffusiveMotionofParticlesinGases 206
4.2.3 TheEinsteinRelation 207
4.2.4 HeatTransport 208
4.2.5 ThermalConductivityDuetoInternalDegreesofFreedom 209
4.2.6 ThermalCapacityofMolecules 211
4.2.7 MomentumTransportandGasViscosity 212
4.2.8 TheChapman–EnskogApproximationforKineticCoefficients
ofGases 213
4.3 TransportofElectronsinGases 218
VIII Contents
4.3.1 DiffusionandMobilityofElectronsinGasesinElectricField 218
4.3.2 DiffusionofElectronsinaGasinaMagneticField 222
4.3.3 ThermalConductivityofElectronsinanIonizedGas 223
4.3.4 ThermalDiffusionofElectrons 225
4.3.5 Cross-FluxesinElectronThermalConductivity 226
4.3.6 TownsendEnergyCoefficient 227
4.4 TransportofAtomicionsandClustersinPlasma 230
4.4.1 Zero-FieldMobilityofIonsinGases 230
4.4.2 MobilityofIonsatHighandIntermediateFieldStrengths 235
4.4.3 DiffusionofAtomicIonsinGasesinExternalFields 238
4.4.4 ConversionofIonsDuringDriftinanElectricField 241
4.4.5 MobilityandDiffusionofLargeClustersinaGas 249
4.4.6 AmbipolarDiffusion 253
4.4.7 DoubleLayer 256
4.4.8 Electrophoresis 258
4.4.9 RecombinationofPositiveandNegativeIonsinGases 258
4.5 PlasmainaMagneticField 261
4.5.1 ElectronHydrodynamicsinaGasinanExternalField 261
4.5.2 HallEffect 262
4.5.3 CyclotronResonance 265
4.5.4 MotionofChargedParticlesinaNonuniformMagneticField 266
4.5.5 MagneticTraps 269
4.5.6 ChargeParticlesintheEarth’sMagneticField 272
4.5.7 High-ConductivityPlasmainaMagneticField 275
4.5.8 PinchEffect 277
4.5.9 ReconnectionofMagneticLinesofForce 277
References 279
5 Waves,Instabilities,andStructuresinExcitedandIonizedGases 283
5.1 InstabilitiesofExcitedGases 283
5.1.1 ConvectiveInstabilityofGases 283
5.1.2 RayleighProblem 284
5.1.3 ConvectiveMovementofGases 286
5.1.4 ConvectiveHeatTransport 287
5.1.5 InstabilityofConvectiveMotion 289
5.1.6 ThermalExplosion 291
5.1.7 ThermalWaves 293
5.1.8 ThermalWavesofVibrationalRelaxation 298
5.1.9 OzoneDecompositionThroughThermalWaves 301
5.2 WavesinIonizedGases 304
5.2.1 AcousticOscillations 304
5.2.2 PlasmaOscillations 306
5.2.3 IonSound 308
5.2.4 MagnetohydrodynamicWaves 309
5.2.5 PropagationofElectromagneticWavesinaPlasma 310
Contents IX
5.2.6 TheFaradayEffectinaPlasma 312
5.2.7 Whistlers 314
5.3 PlasmaInstabilities 316
5.3.1 DampingofPlasmaOscillationsinIonizedGases 316
5.3.2 InteractionBetweenPlasmaOscillationsandElectrons 317
5.3.3 AttenuationFactorforWavesinPlasmas 320
5.3.4 Beam-PlasmaInstability 321
5.3.5 BunemanInstability 323
5.3.6 HydrodynamicInstabilities 324
5.4 NonlinearPhenomenainPlasmas 325
5.4.1 TheLighthillCriterion 325
5.4.2 TheKorteweg–deVriesEquation 326
5.4.3 Solitons 327
5.4.4 LangmuirSolitons 328
5.4.5 NonlinearIonSound 329
5.4.6 ParametricInstability 332
5.5 IonizationInstabilitiesandPlasmaStructures 335
5.5.1 DriftWaves 335
5.5.2 IonizationInstabilityfromThermalEffects 336
5.5.3 IonizationWaveinaPhotoresonantPlasma 337
5.5.4 IonizationInstabilityofaPlasmainaMagneticField 339
5.5.5 AttachmentInstabilityofaMolecularGas 341
5.5.6 CurrentConvectiveInstability 343
5.5.7 ElectricDomain 345
5.5.8 StriationsasIonizationWaves 347
5.5.9 Self-ConsistentStructureofStriations 351
References 355
6 ComplexPlasmas,IncludingAtmosphericPlasmas 359
6.1 SingleClusterorParticleinanIonizedGas 359
6.1.1 CharacteristicsofaComplexPlasma 359
6.1.2 TransportParametersofClusters 360
6.1.3 ChargingofParticlesinaDenseIonizedGas 362
6.1.4 TheChargeDistributionFunctionforClusters 365
6.1.5 ChargingofClustersorParticlesinaRareIonizedGas 367
6.1.6 IonizationEquilibriumforLargeDielectricClusters 370
6.2 ParticleFieldsinanIonizedGas 372
6.2.1 Self-ConsistentParticleFieldinaRareIonizedGas 372
6.2.2 TrappedIonsofLow-DensityPlasmainaParticleField 377
6.2.3 InteractionofDustParticleswiththeSolarWind 383
6.2.4 ScreeningoftheParticleFieldinaDenseIonizedGas 385
6.2.5 InfluenceofParticlesonthePropertiesofIonizedGases 388
6.2.6 ParticleStructuresinDustyPlasma 390
6.3 ClusterPlasma 395
6.3.1 IonizationEquilibriumforMetalClustersinaClusterPlasma 395
X Contents
6.3.2 ConversionofanAtomicVaporintoaGasofClusters 397
6.3.3 ClusterGrowthinCoagulationandCoalescence 401
6.3.4 ClusterGrowthinaHotGaswithMetal-ContainingMolecules 406
6.3.5 PassageofClusterPlasmaFlowthroughanOrifice 411
6.4 PlasmaProcessesintheEarth’sAtmosphere 412
6.4.1 ProcessesinAtmosphericPlasmas 412
6.4.2 AerosolPlasma 417
6.4.3 TheIonosphereasaMirrorforElectromagneticWaves 418
6.4.4 AtomicOxygenintheUpperAtmosphere 421
6.4.5 IonsintheUpperAtmosphere 423
6.5 ElectricMachineoftheEarth’sAtmosphere 425
6.5.1 TheEarthasanElectricSystem 425
6.5.2 Lightning 428
6.5.3 ElectricProcessesinClouds 430
6.5.4 CharacteristicsofEarthCharging 433
6.5.5 ChargedParticlesinanAerosolPlasma 438
6.5.6 PrebreakdownPhenomenaintheAtmosphere 439
References 441
7 Conclusion–PlasmasinNatureandtheLaboratory 447
References 457
AppendixA PhysicalConstantsandUnits 459
References 466
AppendixB ParametersofAtomsandIons 467
Index 469