Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates

31 Pages·2017·0.79 MB·English

Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9
DOI10.1186/s13002-017-0136-0
REVIEW Open Access
Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely
terrestrial, folk-medicinally important
invertebrates: a comparative survey and
review
V. Benno Meyer-Rochow1,2
Abstract
Traditionalhealingmethodsinvolvinghundredsofinsectandotherinvertebratespeciesarereviewed.Someoftheuses
arebasedonthetenetof“similiasimilibus”(letlikesbecuredbylikes),butnotallnon-conventionalhealthpromoting
practices should be dismissed as superstition or wishful thinking, for they have stood the test of time. Two
questions are addressed: how can totally different organ systems in a human possibly benefit from extracts,
potions, powders, secretions, ashes, etc. of a single species and how can different target organs, e.g. bronchi,
lungs,theurinarybladder,kidneys,etc.apparentlyrespondtoarangeoftaxonomicallynotevencloselyrelatedspecies?
Even though therapeutically used invertebrates are generally small, they nevertheless possess organs for
specificfunctions,e.g.digestion,gasexchange,reproduction.Theyhaveanervoussystem,endocrineglands,aheartand
muscle tissue and they contain a multitude of different molecules like metabolites, enzymes, hormones,
neurotransmitters, secretions, etc. that have come under increased scientific scrutiny for pharmacological
properties. Bearing that in mind it seems likely that a single species prepared and used in different ways
couldhaveamultitudeofuses.Buthow,forexample,canthereberemediesforbreathingandotherproblems,involving
earthworms, molluscs, termites, beetles, cockroaches, bugs, and dragonflies? Since invertebrates themselves
cansufferfrominfectionsandcancers,commondefencereactionsarelikelytohaveevolvedinallinvertebrates,which
iswhyitwouldbefarmoresurprisingtofindthateachspecieshadevolveditsownuniquediseasefightingsystem.
Toobtainamorecomprehensivepicture,however,westillneedinformationonfolkmedicinalusesofinsectsand
otherinvertebratesfromawiderrangeofregionsandethnicgroups,butthistaskishamperedbywestern-based
medicinesbecomingincreasinglydominantandtraditionalhealersbeingunableandsometimesevenunwillingto
transmittheirknowledgetotheyoungergeneration.However,collectinganduncontrolledusesoftherapeutic
invertebratescanputunduepressureoncertainhighlysoughtafterspeciesandthisissomethingthathastobe
borneinmindaswell.
Keywords:Folkmedicine,Traditionalhealing,Entomo-pharmacology,Health,Alternativetherapies
Correspondence:[email protected]
1DepartmentofGeneticsandPhysiology,OuluUniversity,OuluSF-90140,
Finland
2ResearchInstituteofLuminousOrganisms,Hachijo,Nakanogo,Hachijojima,
Tokyo100-1623,Japan
©TheAuthor(s).2017OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0
InternationalLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,and
reproductioninanymedium,providedyougiveappropriatecredittotheoriginalauthor(s)andthesource,providealinkto
theCreativeCommonslicense,andindicateifchangesweremade.TheCreativeCommonsPublicDomainDedicationwaiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/)appliestothedatamadeavailableinthisarticle,unlessotherwisestated.
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page2of31
Background spider-mediated remedies, e.g. [34, 39–43] and the often
Insectsasfoodandmedicine weird instructions how to carry out the procedures that
Investigations into the uses of insects and other inverte- would ‘heal body and soul’, some of the recommended
brates as sources of medicines or integral components of remedies couldwell dowithsome scientific validation.
therapiesandassourcesofnutritionforhumanshavehad Some of the first really comprehensive reviews dealing
rather different histories. Although some earlier detailed with insects and their roles in folk medicinal practices
accounts of insects as human food were available [1–4], were those of Keferstein [44] and Jühling [45], both cited
serious interest in researching insects and their potential in[39,40].Sincethenseveralmoreextensivepublications,
as an item in the human diet tosafeguard futurefood se- reviewing therapeutically important invertebrate animals
curity did not occur until 1975, when in the journal have appeared like, to name but a few [42, 46–56] on
“Search” of the Australian and New Zealand Association arthropods and those on snails by Bonnemain [57] and
for the Advancement of Science an article with the pro- Thomas [58]. Numerous very useful additional articles
vocative title “Can insects help to ease the problem of exist(e.g.,[33,34,43,58–65]),buttheyusuallyfocuseven
world food shortage” appeared [5]. Ever since then the more than the earlier mentioned reviews on specific
numbers of publications dealing with food insects and groupsofinsectsandotherinvertebratesorrestrictthem-
investigations into the consumption ofinsects by humans selves to particular geographic regions and their inhabi-
have continually been increasing (see review by Evans tants [52, 53, 66, 67]. Borne out by “Google searches”
et al. [6]). Owing to chemical analyses and nutritional which on April 28th, 2016 yielded for entries of “ento-
assessments, a wealth of data is now available to unam- motherapy” and “medicinal insects” as search words
biguously conclude that insects represent a valuable food 11,100 and 7,110 respective hits, but for “entomophagy”
category rich in minerals and vitamins, protein and easily and “insects as human food” 140,000 and 10,300, re-
digestible fatty acids, not to mention roughage like fibres spectively, one can conclude that the body of literature
and chitin deemed to be beneficial for gut functionality, on insects as human food nowadays vastly exceeds
e.g.[7–15]. that dealing with therapeutically used arthropods and
However, insects and other invertebrates, since times other invertebrates.
immemorial,havenot onlybeen usedasanitem offood, This is somewhat surprising, given that Meyer-Rochow
but have also played important roles in the treatment of [68] has noticed that the uses of insects and sometimes
diseases and other dysfunctions [16, 17]. As of late, theirproductsaspartoffolkmedicinalpracticesappearto
pharmaceutical research has become increasingly inter- be far more resilient to change than insects used exclu-
ested in marine invertebrates as a source of antibiotics sively as food, which is why nowadays arthropod species
and health-promoting substances, e.g. [18–22]. Yet, andotherinvertebratesusedmedicinallyoftenoutnumber
medically important terrestrial arthropods have not species(orgroupsofspeciestaxonomicallycloselyrelated)
benefitted from this upswing in activity or the current used as food in countries where insect consumption has
interest in food insects and have received far less atten- altogether disappeared or is limited to a very small num-
tion than the latter. On the other hand reports, dating ber of species. A case in point is South Korea, for which
back to antiquity and containing information on a wide Pemberton [69] lists 12 medicinally used species, without
range of medicinally used insects and other inverte- counting centipedes, scorpions and annelids, and North
brates, actually appear to vastly outnumber those that Korea for which Meyer-Rochow [70] lists 13 medicinally
were dealing solely with food insects. In more recent used species, but only 3 species used as human food.
times, however, the focus on therapeutically useful Corresponding figures by Okamoto and Muramatsu
terrestrial invertebrates, at the expense of numerous [71] for a pre-World War II Korea are 77 medically
other species, has been on honey bees and their honey, important versus 14 edible species.
e.g. [23–28], maggots involved in wound cleaning, e.g. Other examples would be Japan, where according to
[29–31], the medicinal leech Hirudo medicinalis, e.g. Umemura[46]atleast120speciesofinsects(somemajor
[32–34] and to a minor extent on the once extremely ones illustrated in Umemura’s book) had roles in treating
popular blister beetles, also known as “Spanish flies” certain ailments, but according to Nonaka [72] only
[35–38]. maximally7kindsofinsectswereregularlyappreciatedas
One reason for this development could have been the food or China, where according to Ding et al. [54] 58
realisation that the descriptions of medicinal uses of in- species were used in treating ailments, but a far smaller
sects in the older reports, were often attributed to the number of species groups (i.e., closely related species as
Doctrine of Signatures (i.e., in the sense of “let likes be members of a single group) were part of the local diet.
cured by likes”) and were therefore dismissed as super- Even in Europe honey bee products, bee stings, and ants
stition or outright nonsense. While this is undoubtedly with their formic acid secretions, let alone medicinal
the case for some of the older descriptions of insect or leeches, etc. are still being used by traditional healers and
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page3of31
homoeopathists, but insects and other arthropods, apart withvariations in the treatment routines by neighbouring
from the very isolated and locally restricted delicacies of communitiesmentionedintheprecedingparagraph,even
the maggot-containing Italian “casu marzu” cheese and within a narrowly defined region, we would encounter
the German “Milbenkäse” (mite cheese), are now no lon- inconsistencies in the uses of the supposedly health-
ger consumed by European citizens. Even more obvious promotingarthropodsandothermedicinalinvertebrates.
wasthis asymmetryin Europea hundred years ago,when Some investigators prepared lists in which the species
Netolitzky [39, 40] was able to provide details of at least were arranged in alphabetical order by scientific or ver-
30 species representing 12 families of medicinally used nacular names [77, 78], but the most meaningful strategy,
Coleopteraalone. albeit also with some inevitable shortcomings, would seem
toinvolvethetaxonomicapproach,inwhichthephylogen-
Medicinalinsectsandotherinvertebrates etic position of the invertebrates under discussion would
Even if Google searches for therapeutic and medicinal in- formthefoundationonwhichthereviewonthemedicinal
sects received fewer hits than those initiated for insects usesoftheseorganismscanrest.Thebiggestproblemwith
consumed by humans (see above), the number of publica- that approach, however, is that such an order would not
tions and reports one would need to consider if one were reflect the degree of therapeutic importance of each taxon,
tocoverthefieldinitsentiretyisstillstaggeringlyhugeand i.e., its ranking, and moreover, since there are many hun-
infactrepresentsataskimpossibletoachieve.Toneverthe- dreds if not thousands of arthropods that would qualify to
less come up with something useful, selectivity is therefore beconsideredforthelist(over500insectsandmitespecies
a necessity. There are several possible approaches to cover according to Oudhia [79] are used as traditional medicine
the topic. One would be to deal with the various diseases in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh alone), it would be an
anddisordersandalistoftheirtreatmentsinvolvinginsects unwieldyandterriblylonglist.
andotherinvertebrates.Oneimmediateproblemwouldbe Finally, as long as no consistent scientific nomenclature
to decide whether to include only physically manifest isusedtonametheinsects,spiders,snailsandotherinver-
diseases or to also include psychiatric disorders; another tebrates used in folk medicines, there would inevitably be
would be whether to follow the classification of diseases identicalspecieswithoftentwo,threeormoresupposedly
according to the International Classification of Diseases ‘scientific’ names,someofthelatterout of dateand some
ICD-10, or to start the list with externally recognizable simply misspelled.Wrong identifications of species repre-
disorders and then progress to the human body’s interior sentfurtherpossibledefects.Itisforthesereasonsthatin
organs, i.e., starting with the skin and moving inward or this review only occasionally species names will be pro-
perhaps starting with the head and moving down to the vided.Sincetherelativeimportanceofataxon(e.g.,genus,
toes.Animportantfurtherdifficultywouldbethatfolkme- family, order, class) can to some extent be gleaned from
dicinalpracticesintreatingsimilarconditionsareoftennot the numbers of therapeutically important species con-
identical in different regions (cf., [49, 53, 72–75]), a situ- tained in them, their numbers will therefore be one focus
ation reminiscent of the way food acceptances vary and ofthissurvey.Anotherwilldealwiththemostcommonly
expressed aptly in the saying “one man’s meat is another mentioned disorders for which arthropods and other
man’s poison” or conveyed convincingly in the statement invertebrates can apparently provide relief. The only two
“what may be perfectly acceptable to one community, may lists that will provide some species’ names (as far as they
be outright objectionable to another” [76]. Therefore, to are known) will be Table 1, which deals with non-insect
focusondiseasesandtoreportwhichinsectsandotherin- arthropodslikechelicerates,crustaceansandmyriapodsas
vertebrates are being employed in connection with treat- wellassomeotherinvertebratetaxaandTable2,whichis
ments for them, although interesting, would result in a a based on a translation from the list of Japanese
ratherconfusing,contradictorycompilation. medicinally and otherwise noteworthy insects in a
Other possibilities would be to examine the active book by Umemura [46], which is difficult to obtain as
compounds that therapeutically employed insects and a second hand copy and also not available by way of
other invertebrates contain and then discuss the animals the internet.
on the basis of the relatedness of their active ingredients One final note of caution: to clearly separate medicinal
or to deal with the uses of the insects and other inverte- from dietary uses ofinsectsisimpossible asinsect dishes
bratesregionby region. However, there are alsoproblems deemed healthy and supportive of a speedy recovery and
with these approaches, because firstly for many medicinal therefore administered to a convalescing patient could
species we have no information on their active com- be classified under both headings. And there are other
poundsand for vast regions welackall knowledge of folk difficulties: what about the use of insects and spiders in
medicinal uses of insects and other invertebrates. There- de-sensitization sessions with people undergoing treat-
fore, a list based on active compounds or regional uses ment for entomo- and arachnophobias? Equally contro-
would possess huge and unacceptable gaps. Secondly, as versial would be the inclusion of the uses of insects and
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page4of31
Table1Therapeuticinvertebratesofnon-insectaffiliations
Taxon Englishname Maladyortargettreated Reference
Platyhelminthes&Nematodes
Schistosomamansoni Bilharziafluke Diabetes1 [222]
Ancylostomasp. hookworms Asthma [223–226]
Necatoramericanus Crohn’sdisease
Trichurissuis Pigworm Ulcerativecolitis;inflammation [34,151]
ofcolonandbowel
Annelida
Eiseniafoetida,Lumbricus Earthworms Secretionsinfluencemurinemalignant [158]
rubelus andlymphocytecellproliferations
Pheretimaspp. Earthworms Eatenrawtoserveasantidoteinsnake [73,77,119]
&spiderbites
Takenorallyormixedwithhoneytodrink
incasesofmalaria
Crushedandappliedtoredeyes
Metaphirehouletti Earthworm Friedandoilysubstancesappliedexternally [153]
toaburn
Perionyxsp. Earthworm Crushedfreshandresultantjuicetodrink [153]
tofightpiles
Lumbricussp. Earthworm Consumedforhaemorrhoids,arthritis,earache, [78]
tocleanobstructions
Lumbricidaeetc. Earthworms Extractswithantibacterial,prophylacticand [152]
generally neuroimmunesytemsupportingfunctions
Earthworms Earthwormextractswithantipyretic,antispasmodic, [155]
generally diuretic,detoxic,antiasthmatic,antihypertensiveand
antiallergeniceffects
Earthworms Kidneystones,alopecia,jaundice,arthralgia, [34]
generally infections,anticoagulant&antibacterialeffects
Blackearthworm Schistosomiasis,lumps [96]
Hirudomedicinalis (Medicinal)leech Friedinsesameoilandoilappliedoverpenisfor [113]
stimulation
Hirudomedicinalis (Medicinal)leech Abnormalswellings,woundhealing,surgery,piles, [34,227]
osteoarthritis,haematoma,anticoagulents,post-phlebitis
syndrome,abscesses
Mollusca:Bivalvia&
Cephalopoda
Angulus(=Tellina)sp. Seashell Groundshellasamildpurgative;women’sdiseases [78]
Mactrasp. Seashell Acne [172]
Loligosp. Squid Asthmatreatmentwithteaoftoastedcuttleboneor [228]
Octopussp. Octopus octopiarms
Sepiaofficinalis Cuttlefish Skin&toothtroubles [78]
Mollusca:Gastropoda
Gastropodagenerally Snailsgenerally Skin,analgesic&ischaemiacardiporotective,syncope, [34,57,58]
mentalillness,vertigo,infections,pain
Arionhortensis Gardenslug, Treatmentforgastritisorstomachulcer [163]
swallowedwhole
Unidentifiedslugs NAmericanslugs Ulcers,bronchitis,asthma [58,226]
Unidentifiedslugs Snailandslug Facialskinlesions,acne,combatwrinkles,reduce [170]
slime pigmentation
Unidentifiedslugs Slugmucus Dermatitis,inflammation,calluses,woundhealing, [163]
wartsremoval
Unidentifiedblackslug Blackslugmucus Wartremoval [229,230]
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page5of31
Table1Therapeuticinvertebratesofnon-insectaffiliations(Continued)
Unidentifiedsnails Gardensnails Snailslimeapplicationincasesofskinproblemsand [164]
internalfortuberculosis,gastrointestinalconditions,
nephritis;hernias,inflammations,colds&coughs,
bronchitis,asthma,pharyngitis;snailextractswork
antibacterialagainstStaphylococcusspp.,E.coli,
PropionibacteriumandHelicobacterpylori,scarand
wrinkleremoval
Pilasp. Applesnail Fleshboiledanddrunkforbonehealingorlocally [73]
applied;flesheatenforinjuries;flesheatenrawfor
gastritis;fleshcooked&consumedformtongue
blister;shellroastedandcrushedappliedtoburns
Pilaglobosa Applesnail Fleshcookedandeatenasreliefforasthma,TB, [119]
stomachdisorders,eyeproblems
Helixsp. Commonsnail Bodyconsumedtotreathaemorrhoids&internalills [78]
Helixpomatia Whoopingcough,chronicbronchitis [169]
Semisulcospiralibertina Blackfreshwater Ingestedassoupforliverandgastroenterictrouble [231]
snail
Lymnaeasp. Pondsnail Flesh,boiledinwaterformeasles,liverailments, [77]
swellingsandsprains
Chelicerata:Araneae
Aviculariinae Bird-eatingspiders, Homeopathicusesas“mygalelasidora”tincture [41]
“tarantulas”
Grammostolaspatulata China“tarantula” Analgesic [88,146]
Psalmapoeuscambridgei S.Am.“tarantula” Analgesic
Brachypelmavagans “Tarantula” Tarantula-basedbeveragewithspidercrushedor [148]
roastedandpowdered;sometimesrubbedon
chestexternally
Tegenariagigantea Sheetspider Web’sasheswithhoneyasaphrodisiacandfor [113]
musculardystrophysymptoms
Heteropodavenatoria Huntsmanspider Driedspiderputinorificetotreatottorhoea [77]
Neosconaexcelsus Orbwebspider Spiderdrugtocureliverenlargement [149]
Argiopepulchella Orbweaver Spiderdrypowderwithvariousleafjuicestotreat
Neosconamukerjei Orbweaver bleedings,drycough,headache
Neosconatheis Wolfspider Drypowderusedincasesoffeverinkala-azar,for
Lycosapoonaensis Pondspider purgativeconditioninchildren,insomniaand
Pardosabirmanica Marshspider blooddysentery
Pardosasumatrana Housespider Diureticandpurgativecondition
ArtemaAtlanta Jumpingspider Spiderdrugforinsomnia
Mirpissadecorata Drypowderusedinconnectionwithbronchitis,
asthma,arterialsclerosis
Toothache
Powdertoimprovememory,lossofvoice,applied
incasesofepistaxisandtoremovebodyfat
Spiderdrugtocuretonsillitis
Spidersgenerally Spiderwebs Externaluses:Removalofwarts;todresswounds [16,41]
andstopbleeding;internaluses:tocuretroublesome,
obstinatedistemper,reduceintermittentfever;to
congealbloodaftertoothextraction
Webscoveredin Usedtocoverpalespotsonpeople’sblackskinin [49]
blacksoot Chad(Africa)ordresswounds(Tanzania:Marusha)
Spiderwebs Putoverboils,postules,ulcers;coveringwounds; [49]
curingwoundfollowingcircumcision(Sudan:
Dongolawi);asafilterduringsuckingblood(Kenya:Kuku)
Theraphosidae Bird-eatingspiders Toastedpowderedhairsmixedwithchalkforpemba [59]
floordrawingsusedinmagicaboutspiritsanddeath
Chelicerata:Scorpionida&Acari
Tytiussp. Scorpion Wholeanimalusedtotreatitsownsting; [49,59]
Crushedscorpionorextractordriedandground
appliedtositeofsting
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page6of31
Table1Therapeuticinvertebratesofnon-insectaffiliations(Continued)
Tytiusdiscrepans Scorpion InhibitsLeishmaniaspp.invitro [34]
Leiurusquinquestriatus Scorpion Consumedforskinproblems&haemorrhoids [78]
hebraeus
ButhusmartensiiorMesobuthus Scorpion Painkiller,convulsions,palsy,stroke,facialparalysis, [69,70]
martensis migraine,lymphdamage,tetanus,parotis,oedema,
carbuncle;
Speechdisorders
Palamnaeusswammerdami Scorpion Boiledinmustardoilwithextractformassageto [119]
relieverheumaticjointspain
Ixodesricinus&I.scapularis Ticks Vascular&thromboticills [34]
Ornithodorosmoubata Softbirdtick Deliberatetickbitestodevelopimmunityagainst [49]
tick-bornefeverbacteriumorrubbingcrushedtick
intosmallskinincision
Boophilusmicroplus Cattletick Chickenpox [17]
Trombidiumgrandissimum Redvelvetmite Malaria,urogenitalills,paralysis,aphrodisiac [79]
Crustacea:
Ocypodequadrata Ghostcrab Wholeanimalusedfortreatmentofasthmaand [228]
Eupagurussp. Hermitcrab haemorrhageinwomen
Namenotavailable Jellyfishcrab
Paratelphusasp. Freshwatercrab Boiledinwater;watertobedrunktofightjaundice; [77]
groundupwithmalebananaflowerandconsumed
tohealinflammatoryglands
Ucidescordatus Mangrovecrab Crabfatmixedinwhitewinetotreathaemorrhage [228]
inwomen
ScyllaserrataandPenaeus Mangrovecrab Treatmentofoldagediabeticsandtocureskin [77]
indicus andriverprawn disease
Cancerpagurus Crab Bodycrushedintopaste,theboiledanddrunkto [113,119]
curejaundice&liverills;
asatonic
Claridopsisdubia Mantisshrimp Teaofpowderedanimalforasthmatreatment [52]
Porcellioscaber Woodlouse,slater Oedema [70]
Echinodermata:Asteroidea
Actinopygaagassizi Starfish Anti-tumour [228,232]
Acanthasterplanci Anti-viral
Asteriasforbesi Anti-inflammatory
Unidentified Starfish Asthma [96]
Echinodermata:Echinoidea Sanddollar Teaoftoastedwholeanimaltotreatasthma [18,228]
Mellitasp., Seaurchins
Echinometralucunter
Myriapoda:Chilopoda
Scolopendraspp. Centipedes Hyperlipidemia,problemsofjoints,feet,legs,stroke, [34,69,70,136]
convulsions,lumps,snakebites,tumours,carbuncles,
tetanus,lymphangitis,cough,alopecia,neuralgia,
whooping,osteomyelitis,gangrene
Myriapoda:Diplopoda
Tymbodesmusfalcatus Millipedes Malaria [140]
Sphenodesmussheribongensis
OneSpirostreptidspecies
Archispirostreptussyriacus Giantmillipede Removalofunwantedhairfromeyelids [78]
Tachypodoiulusniger Blackmillipede Decoctiontobetakenorallyfortuberculosis [77]
Unidentified Jongoo(Swaheli) Dried,usedasashandrubbedintoscarifications Referredtoas“Tausenfüßler”in[51],
millipede butcouldbeacentipede
(“Hundertfüßler”)
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page7of31
Table2Notethatthetaxonomicpositionsandnamesofsomeoftheinsectsmentionedinthistablearelikelytohavechanged
sincetheoriginalpublicationin1943byUmemura,onwhichthistableandasimilaroneinGermanbySchimitschek(1968)are
based.However,inordertoavoidambiguityandconfusion,itwasfeltitwasbestforthistranslatedversiontoretainthenomenclature
usedintheJapaneseoriginal.Notealsothatprecisedescriptionsofthevariouswaysthattreatmentsareadministeredarenotgivenin
thistranslation.LeftoutarespeciesincludedbyUmemura(1943)tobeusedonlyasgenerallywholesomefooditems,e.g.,pupaeof
PsilogrammaincretaandlarvaeofDendrolimusspectabilis,Chilosimplex,SchoenobiusincertellusandZeuzerapyrina(Lepidoptera),larvaeof
Vespajaponicaandlarvaeandpupaeof5speciesofPolistes(Hymenoptera),larvaeofPrionusinsularis(Coleoptera),adultsofLoxoblemus
orientalis,L.doenitziandGryllodesbethellus(Orthoptera),Cloeondipterum(Ephemeroptera)andadultsofvariousspeciesofcicadas
(Hemiptera).ThatnumerousadditionalspeciesofinsectshistoricallyfoundacceptanceastraditionalfoodinJapanisapparent
fromthelistgivenbyMitsuhashi(2008)inhisbookonedibleinsectsoftheworld
Classification Treatment Additionalinformation
Lepidoptera(Bombycidae)
Bombyxmori Larvaeemployedinstoppingbleedings,throat Faecesusedinconnectionwithbellyache,
troubles,feverandsnakebite; intestines,lumbago,cramps,eyeinfections,
Pupaeusedinconnectionwiththroatproblems, gonorrhoea,brainhaemorrhage,haemorrhoids
tuberculosis,kidneyproblems;
Adultstostopbleedingsandcountersnakebite.
Antheraeayamamai Larvaeusedinconnectionwithasthmaandcramps; Cocoonusedinconnectionwithbonefractures
Pupaeforthroatandskintroubles,lumpsandcramps;
Antheraeapernyi Pupaetoreducetumourgrowths&lumps Cocoontotreatbonefracturesandcramps
Dictyoplocajaponica Eggsusedintreatingskinproblems
Rhodiniafugax Cocoonfortumour&lumpreduction Whoopingcough
Lepidoptera(Sphingidae)
Theretraoldenlandiae LarvaeallconsideredeffectiveintreatmentsofTB,
stomachupsets,umps,tumoursandfeveraswell
Theretranessus
assnakebites
Acherontiastyx
Pergesaelpenorlewisi
Macroglossastellatarum
Herseconvolvuli
Psilogrammaincreta
Lepidoptera(Brahmaeidae)
Brahmaeajaponica Larvaeusedinconnectionwithcramps,respiratory Larvaecanmitigateanaemia
andstomachtroubles
Lepidoptera(Cochlidionidae)
Cnidocampaflavescens Larvaehelpagainstcramps;Pupaeandadults
consideredtohavepositiveeffectonvision
Lepidoptera(Hepialidae)
Phassusexcrescens Larvaeusedforlungandstomachtroublesand
snakebite
Lepidoptera(Psychidae)
Cryptotheleaminuscula Larvaeusedfortoothacheandlarvaeaswellas Alsousedinconnectionwithanaemia
adultsforrespiratoryproblems
Lepidoptera(Aegeriidae)
Paranthreneregalis Larvaeusedforstomachupsets,crampsand Usedincasesofdiphtheria
gynaecologicalissues
Lepidoptera(Cossidae)
Holocerusvicarius Usedinfightingfeverandcramps
Lepidoptera(Papilionidae)
Papilioxuthus Larvaeandadultsallusedinconnectionwithskin
disorders;adultsmoreoverintreatmentsoflumps
Papiliomachaon
andtumours
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page8of31
Table2Notethatthetaxonomicpositionsandnamesofsomeoftheinsectsmentionedinthistablearelikelytohavechanged
sincetheoriginalpublicationin1943byUmemura,onwhichthistableandasimilaroneinGermanbySchimitschek(1968)are
based.However,inordertoavoidambiguityandconfusion,itwasfeltitwasbestforthistranslatedversiontoretainthenomenclature
usedintheJapaneseoriginal.Notealsothatprecisedescriptionsofthevariouswaysthattreatmentsareadministeredarenotgivenin
thistranslation.LeftoutarespeciesincludedbyUmemura(1943)tobeusedonlyasgenerallywholesomefooditems,e.g.,pupaeof
PsilogrammaincretaandlarvaeofDendrolimusspectabilis,Chilosimplex,SchoenobiusincertellusandZeuzerapyrina(Lepidoptera),larvaeof
Vespajaponicaandlarvaeandpupaeof5speciesofPolistes(Hymenoptera),larvaeofPrionusinsularis(Coleoptera),adultsofLoxoblemus
orientalis,L.doenitziandGryllodesbethellus(Orthoptera),Cloeondipterum(Ephemeroptera)andadultsofvariousspeciesofcicadas
(Hemiptera).ThatnumerousadditionalspeciesofinsectshistoricallyfoundacceptanceastraditionalfoodinJapanisapparent
fromthelistgivenbyMitsuhashi(2008)inhisbookonedibleinsectsoftheworld(Continued)
Papilioprotenordemetrius
Papiliomacilentus
Papilioalcinous
Graphiumsarpedonnipponus
Hymenoptera(Apidae)
Apisindicajaponica Honeyusedinconnectionwithskin,respiratory, Honeygivenincasesofinfluenza,thecommon
urinaryandintestinaldisorders,snakebiteand coldandwhoopingcough;waxforfrecklesand
rabies; constipation
Waxusedalsoinconnectionwithskinand
digestiveproblemsandsnakebite:Larvae&
adultsinconnection
withrheumatism
Hymenoptera(Xylocopidae)
Xylocopaapendiculatacircumvolans Larvaeusedinconnectionwithfeverand Consideredalsoeffectiveincasesofhaemorrhoids
respiratory/lungailments
Hymenoptera(Vespidae)
Vespaauraria Larvaeusedinconnectionwithskindiseases, Larvaltreatmentincasesofhaemorrhoids
feverandrespiratoryproblems;
Vespamandarina
Pupaeusedinconnectionwithwhooping
cough Nestmaterialconsideredeffectiveinvenereal
Nestmaterialforear,eyeanddental diseaseandhaemorrhoids
problems,skindisordersandcramps
Hymenoptera(Braconidae)
Euurobraconpenerator Larvaeusedincasesofcramp
Coleoptera(Cerambycidae)
Aprionarugicollis Larvaeusedinconnectionwithlungproblems,
crampsandpalsy
Batoceralineolata Larvaeusedtomitigatecramps Usedincancertherapyanddiphtheria
Chloridolumthaliodes Larvaeinvolvedintreatingsmallpox
Coleoptera(Meloidae)
Epicautagorhami Adultsusedintreatmentsofhair,skinexcretory Consideredeffectiveincasesofwarts
(kidney)systemandrabies
Coleoptera(Cicindelidae)
Cicindelachinensis Adultsusedinconnectionwithskin,tumours
andgynaecologicalproblems
Coleoptera(Telephoridae)
Luciolalateralis Adultsusedinconnectionwithbleedings,hair Consideredeffectiveincasesofwhoopingcough,
andtumours haemorrhoidsandasatonic
Luciolacruciata
Coleoptera(Hydrophilidae)
Hydrousacuminatus Larvaeusedinconnectionwithskindisorders Consideredeffectiveincasesofwhoopingcough
andcramps
Hydrophilusaffinis
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page9of31
Table2Notethatthetaxonomicpositionsandnamesofsomeoftheinsectsmentionedinthistablearelikelytohavechanged
sincetheoriginalpublicationin1943byUmemura,onwhichthistableandasimilaroneinGermanbySchimitschek(1968)are
based.However,inordertoavoidambiguityandconfusion,itwasfeltitwasbestforthistranslatedversiontoretainthenomenclature
usedintheJapaneseoriginal.Notealsothatprecisedescriptionsofthevariouswaysthattreatmentsareadministeredarenotgivenin
thistranslation.LeftoutarespeciesincludedbyUmemura(1943)tobeusedonlyasgenerallywholesomefooditems,e.g.,pupaeof
PsilogrammaincretaandlarvaeofDendrolimusspectabilis,Chilosimplex,SchoenobiusincertellusandZeuzerapyrina(Lepidoptera),larvaeof
Vespajaponicaandlarvaeandpupaeof5speciesofPolistes(Hymenoptera),larvaeofPrionusinsularis(Coleoptera),adultsofLoxoblemus
orientalis,L.doenitziandGryllodesbethellus(Orthoptera),Cloeondipterum(Ephemeroptera)andadultsofvariousspeciesofcicadas
(Hemiptera).ThatnumerousadditionalspeciesofinsectshistoricallyfoundacceptanceastraditionalfoodinJapanisapparent
fromthelistgivenbyMitsuhashi(2008)inhisbookonedibleinsectsoftheworld(Continued)
Sternolophusrufipes
Coleoptera(Dytiscidae)
Cybisterbrevis Larvaeprescribedincasesofasthma,respiratory
andstomachproblems
Cybisterjaponicus
Cybistertrpuntatus
Rhantuspulverosus Adultsusedincasesofskindisorders
Coleoptera(Scarabaeidae)
Xylotrupesdichotomus Larvaeinvolvedintreatinggynaecological
problems
Coleoptera(Lucanicidae)
Lucanusmacrifemoratus Larvaeandadultsinvolvedintreatmentsof
gynaecologicalproblems
Psalidoremusinclinatus
Coleoptera(Gyrinidae)
Gyrinuscurtus Larvaeandadultsbothusedinconnectionwith
Gyrinusjaponicus lungandstomachproblems,feverandcramps
Dineutesmarginatus
Diptera(Syrphidae)
Eristalistenax Pupaeforeyeproblems.toothache,andfever;
adultsinconnectionwithcramps
Diptera(Tabanidae)
Tabanustrigonus Adultsusedforeyedisordersandtumours
Tabanusrufidens
Tabanuschrysurus
Tabanusmandarinus
Diptera(Muscidae)
Muscadomestica Larvaeusedintreatingsnakebitesandfever,gut Effectiveincasesofhaemorrhoids
andstomachproblemsandeyedisorders;
Muscinastabulans
Adultsinconnectionwithfever,toothacheand
Fanniacanicularis skindisorders
Calliphoralata Usedinconnectionwithvenerealdiseases
Diptera(Ortalidae)
Dryomyzaformosa Larvaeusedtoreducefever,incasesofsnakebite,
gutandstomachproblemsandeyedisorders
Diptera(Culiciidae)
Culexpipiens Adultsusedtocounteractvenerealdiseases
Aedesjaponicus
Aedesalbopictus
Anophelesjaponicus
Aphaniptera(Pulicidae)
Pulexirritans Adultsallusedinconnectionwithvenerealdiseases
Meyer-RochowJournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine (2017) 13:9 Page10of31
Table2Notethatthetaxonomicpositionsandnamesofsomeoftheinsectsmentionedinthistablearelikelytohavechanged
sincetheoriginalpublicationin1943byUmemura,onwhichthistableandasimilaroneinGermanbySchimitschek(1968)are
based.However,inordertoavoidambiguityandconfusion,itwasfeltitwasbestforthistranslatedversiontoretainthenomenclature
usedintheJapaneseoriginal.Notealsothatprecisedescriptionsofthevariouswaysthattreatmentsareadministeredarenotgivenin
thistranslation.LeftoutarespeciesincludedbyUmemura(1943)tobeusedonlyasgenerallywholesomefooditems,e.g.,pupaeof
PsilogrammaincretaandlarvaeofDendrolimusspectabilis,Chilosimplex,SchoenobiusincertellusandZeuzerapyrina(Lepidoptera),larvaeof
Vespajaponicaandlarvaeandpupaeof5speciesofPolistes(Hymenoptera),larvaeofPrionusinsularis(Coleoptera),adultsofLoxoblemus
orientalis,L.doenitziandGryllodesbethellus(Orthoptera),Cloeondipterum(Ephemeroptera)andadultsofvariousspeciesofcicadas
(Hemiptera).ThatnumerousadditionalspeciesofinsectshistoricallyfoundacceptanceastraditionalfoodinJapanisapparent
fromthelistgivenbyMitsuhashi(2008)inhisbookonedibleinsectsoftheworld(Continued)
Ctenocephaluscanis
Ctenocephalusfelis
Anoplura(Pediculidae)
Pediculuscorporis Adultsusedincasesofvenerealdiseases
Pedicuushumanus
Orthoptera(Gryllotalpidae)
Gryllotalpaafricana Adultsusedtoreducefever,mitigateskinandkidney Consideredalsousefulinconnectionwith
troublesandfighttumourgrowths venerealdisease
Orthoptera(Gryllidae)
Gryllusmitratus Larvaeandadultsusedforfeverandtumourreduction Adultsusedfordysentery
Orthoptera(Locustidae)
Oxyavelox Adultsusedincasesoffever,respiratory,skinand Effectiveintreatingcancer,haemorrhoidsand
gynaecologicalproblems anaemia
Oxyavicina
Mantodea
Paratenoderaaridifolia Adultsusedintreatingfever,beriberi,toothache,
fever,hairandrespiratoryproblems
Paratenoderaangustiennis
Statiliamaculata
Hierodulapatellifera
Mantisreligiosa
Blattaria
Blattellagermanica Adultsusedinconnectionwithskinandstomach
disorders
Periplanetaamericana
Periplanetapicea
Blattaorientalis
Odonata(Libellulidae)
Sympetrumdarwinianum Adultsusedinconnectionwiththroataches,asthma, Larvaeconsideredtohelpagainstwhooping
tumoursandfever cough
Sympetrumelatum Adultsusedforasthma
Sympetrumcroceolum Adultsallconsideredeffectiveincasesofasthma
Sympetrumfrequense
Orthetrumalbistylum
Crocothemisservillia Adultsusedforear,eye,throatandgutproblems Usedalsoinconnectionwithdiphtheriaand
aswellasfever cough
Neuroptera(Myrmeleonidae)
Hagenomyiamicans Larvaeusedinconnectionwithfever,migraine/
headaches,beriberiandgonorrhoea;adults
consideredeffectiveincasesofwhoopingcough