Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction (Philosophy and Science)

392 Pages·2007·3.37 MB·English

by  Robert Nola

Th eories of Scientifi c Method
Philosophy and Science
Series Editor: Alexander Bird
Th is series in the philosophy of science off ers fresh treatments of core topics
in the theory and methodology of scientifi c knowledge and introductions to
new areas of the discipline. Th e series also seeks to cover topics in current
science that raise signifi cant foundational issues both for scientifi c theory and
for philosophy more generally.
Published
Philosophy of Biology
Brian Garvey
Th eories of Scientifi c Method
Robert Nola and Howard Sankey
Forthcoming titles include
Empiricism
Stathis Psillos
Models and Th eories
Roman Frigg
Philosophy of Chemistry
Robin Hendry
Philosophy of Physics
James Ladyman
Psychiatry and Philosophy of Science
Rachel Cooper
Th eories of Scientifi c Method
An Introduction
Robert Nola and Howard Sankey
acumen
For Alan Musgrave
© Robert Nola & Howard Sankey, 2007
Th is book is copyright under the Berne Convention.
No reproduction without permission.
All rights reserved.
First published in 2007 by Acumen
Acumen Publishing Limited
Stocksfi eld Hall
Stocksfi eld
NE43 7TN
www.acumenpublishing.co.uk
isbn: 978-1-84465-084-2 (hardcover)
isbn: 978-1-84465-085-9 (paperback)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Designed and typeset by Kate Williams, Swansea.
Printed and bound by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn.
Contents
Abbreviations ix
Acknowledgements x
Introduction 1
I Th e idea of methodology
1 What is this thing called scientifi c method? 12
1.1 Diff erent methodological practices within the sciences 13
1.2 Methodology and clinical trials 15
1.3 Methodology within the context of discovery and the
context of justifi cation 19
1.4 Methods for discovery 22
1.5 Heuristics as methodology 26
1.6 Scientifi c method and the methodology of logic 28
2 Th eoretical values in science 32
2.1 Aims of science and scientists 33
2.2 A broad classifi cation of kinds of value 35
2.3 Some virtues of scientifi c theories 37
2.4 Kuhn on values 45
2.5 Aims and values of science: Popper 49
2.6 Aims and values of science: Duhem 52
2.7 Epistemic and pragmatic values 55
3 Rules and principles of method 57
3.1 Values, rules and principles of method 58
3.2 Some features of principles of method 63
3.3 Methodological principles from the history of science,
I: Descartes 65
v
theories of scientific method
3.4 Methodological principles from the history of science,
II: Newton 68
3.5 Methodological principles from the history of science,
III: Duhem 74
4 Metamethodology 80
4.1 A three-tiered relationship between science, methods and
metamethods 81
4.2 Metamethodology: what is it and is it possible? 83
4.3 A priori, empirical and expressivist approaches to
metamethodology 86
4.4 Th e metamethodology of refl ective equilibrium 91
4.5 Th e historical turn, methods and metamethods 98
II Inductive and hypothetico-deductive methods
5 Induction in science 106
5.1 Deduction and induction 108
5.2 From induction to probability and confi rmation 109
5.3 Enumerative induction 113
5.4 Th e rule of inference to the best explanation 119
5.5 Th e problem of grue 130
5.6 Simplicity of equations 134
5.7 Simplicity and curve-fi tting 138
6 Some justifi cations of induction 143
6.1 Attempting a justifi cation of deduction 144
6.2 A sceptical argument against the justifi cation of induction 148
6.3 Th e inductivist justifi cation of induction 152
6.4 Th e pragmatic vindication of induction 158
6.5 Externalism and the warrant for induction 163
7 Th e hypothetico-deductive method 170
7.1 Th e structure of the h-d method 172
7.2 Refi nements of, and problems for, the h-d method 176
7.3 Problems for h-d confi rmation 179
7.4 Appendix on some paradoxical results of confi rmation theory 181
III Probability and scientifi c method
8 Probability, Bayesianism and methodology 186
8.1 Principles and theorems of probability 187
8.2 Bayes’s theorem in some of its forms 195
8.3 Bayesian confi rmation 199
8.4 Th e h-d method in a Bayesian context 202
vi
contents
8.5 Subjective degree of belief as a probability 204
8.6 Metamethodological justifi cation and the Dutch book theorem 210
8.7 Bayesian conditionalization and pure subjective Bayesianism 216
9 Bayesianism: applications and problems 220
9.1 Th e problem of priors 221
9.2 Is Bayesianism complete? 227
9.3 New evidence and the problem of old evidence 231
9.4 Kuhnian values and Bayesianism 236
9.5 Bayesianism and inference to the best explanation 240
9.6 Induction and Bayesianism 242
9.7 Th e Quine–Duhem problem and Bayesianism 245
IV Popper and his rivals
10 Popper, Lakatos and scientifi c method 252
10.1 Popper’s theory of scientifi c method: critical rationalism 253
10.2 Lakatos’s methodology of scientifi c research programmes 274
11 Kuhn and Feyerabend 285
11.1 Kuhn and methodology 285
11.2 Feyerabend: the methodological anarchist? 298
V Naturalism, pragmatism, realism and methodology
12 Naturalism, pragmatism and method 312
12.1 Quine and naturalized methodology 314
12.2 Laudan’s normative naturalism 321
12.3 Rescher’s methodological pragmatism 329
13 Scientifi c realism and methodology 337
13.1 Aspects of scientifi c realism 337
13.2 Th e success argument for scientifi c realism 341
13.3 Realist axiology and the meta-level success argument 347
Epilogue 351
Notes 355
Bibliography 367
Index 375
vii

Abbreviations
ac affi rming the consequent
aic Akaike information criterion
bic Bayesian information criterion
cei counter (enumerative) induction
cs cognitive system
ei enumerative induction
gsk growth in scientifi c knowledge
h-d hypothetico-deductive (method)
ibe inference to the best explanation
ibs inference to the best systematization
mir metamethodological inductive rule
pun principle of the uniformity of nature
rem rapid eye movement
sis suffi cient isolation of the system
srp scientifi c research programme
step Benson et al., “Study of the Th erapeutic Eff ects of Intercessory Prayer
(step) in Cardiac Bypass Patients” (2006).
ix