4/23/2015 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Oxford Scholarship University Press Scholarship Online Oxford Scholarship Online Theophilus of Alexandria and the First Origenist Controversy: Rhetoric and Power Krastu Banev Print publication date: 2015 Print ISBN13: 9780198727545 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2015 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Krastu Banev DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.003.0001 Abstract and Keywords In the age of the Theodosian dynasty and the establishment of Christianity as the only legitimate religion of the Roman Empire, few figures were more important in the power politics of the Christian church than archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria. The introduction presents the research question of the monograph and situates it in the context of the most recent scholarly discussions of Theophilus and his role in the condemnation of Origen. This is followed by a brief justification of the proposed method and an outline of the structure of the argument. Keywords: forensic rhetoric, heresy, early Christianity, Origen, church history In the age of the Theodosian dynasty, when Christianity was made the only legitimate religion of the Roman Empire, few figures were more pivotal in the power politics of the Christian church than archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria (385– 412). The present monograph pioneers a contextualized literaryhistorical approach in offering new insights into the life and reputation of this remarkable figure. It examines the Festal Letters of Theophilus and identifies the importance of classical rhetorical theory as a methodological tool for the interpretation of relevant historical data. The discussion is focused on the socalled First Origenist Controversy, the condemnation of Origen in 400 in Alexandria, the punishment of his monastic followers, and their expulsion from the Egyptian desert.1 The long historical record which fills the time http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter1?print 1/5 4/23/2015 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Oxford Scholarship separating scholars today from these past events is populated by friends and enemies of Origen who have bequeathed to posterity numerous radically different accounts seeking either to defend or to condemn him.2 As is well known, the historian Eusebius had remembered him as an exemplary Christian who had died as a result of the ‘dreadful cruelties he endured for the word of Christ’ during the Decian persecution (c.251).3 In the early fifth century, however, this positive appraisal was reversed and Origen received a formal condemnation for heresy at a panEgyptian council presided over by the archbishop Theophilus. Far from being the ‘orthodox and believing (p.2) Christian’ carefully reconstructed by modern scholars,4 Origen was condemned here in exactly the opposite terms, as the teacher of every theological error or, in the words of Theophilus, as the ‘hydra of all heresies’.5 In terms of historical accuracy, Origen’s condemnation presents a problem of the first magnitude, as virtually all modern scholars have now reached an agreement that he cannot be considered guilty of the charges raised against him after his death.6 As an illustration of the intensity of this conviction on the part of modern defenders of Origen’s innocence, we may quote the forceful conclusion of Michel Fédou: ‘He had never presented Christ as a simple intellect . . . He had never accepted that Christ should be considered as a creature among other creatures . . . He had never preached the slightest separation between Christ and the Word.’7 This passionate defence is said with regard to the sixthcentury accusations but Fédou’s verdict on the earlier accusations by Theophilus is identical, although less vigorously expressed: in their majority, the charges are entirely ‘foreign’ to the inner coherence of Origen’s thought.8 When trying to explain the root cause of the various accusations, Fédou attributed it to the ‘forgetfulness’ on the part of his accusers; they no longer knew how to read Origen’s works as the exercises of a ‘researcher’ engaging in new ways with new (p.3) questions.9 The claim here, in other words, is that later generations, that of Theophilus included, had failed to understand both Origen’s quest and his answers as belonging exclusively to discussions in his own third century, when there were still large sections on the theological map awaiting their first cartographer. Thus, Origen had suffered at the hands of people engaged in a deplorably anachronistic reading of his works. It is this lack of historical awareness that caused the condemnation of Origen’s theological explorations as incompatible with the later codification of imperial orthodoxy. Yet, if it were possible to imagine a Theophilus forgetting what Origen had actually said, it would not follow that those who accepted the patriarch’s judgement had also forgotten the true words of the great teacher. Or simply put, it is not methodologically sound to presume that a whole generation was suffering from amnesia. If the condemnation was an unjust one, why was it accepted? When we consider, in other words, how Theophilus put the blame squarely on Origen, what we will be asking is why and how this presentation was accepted by the fifthcentury church. This question has not been examined by scholars, whose approaches have been too narrowly fixated on Theophilus’ tainted reputation. Giuseppe Lazzati and Agostino Favale, for example, who authored the first scholarly biographies of Theophilus in the twentieth century, both dismissed his antiOrigenist efforts as political machinations on the part of an evil church leader.10 Their conclusions rehearse the old argument of one of Theophilus’ fifthcentury opponents, Palladius of Helenopolis, who called him ἀμφαλλάξ (‘weathercock’).11 This appellation, as Demetrios Katos has recently shown, was part of a carefully constructed forensic argument intended to slander the patriarch’s character and portray his whole career as aimed solely at his (p.4) own personal gain, in terms of both political ambition and monetary reward.12 Palladius was ultimately very successful in shaping historical memory and his argument has travelled unchecked through the centuries. Theophilus has been described in similar terms in English scholarship beginning with Edward Gibbon, who labelled him ‘the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue, a bold, bad man, whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood’.13 More recently, he has been portrayed as ‘the artful and violent patriarch of Alexandria, a sorry figure of a bishop’ (Johannes Quasten);14 as ‘a man of huge ambition, eager to enforce his authority by whatever means he could’ (Owen Chadwick).15 These remarks are echoed in Jerome’s English biographer, John Kelly, who although recognizing the patriarch’s antiOrigenist letters as ‘magnificently eloquent in their indictment of Origenism’, still dismissed them because ‘the theses selected were often absurdly distorted’.16 For Elizabeth Clark, his campaign against Origenism was merely ‘a foil for his political machinations’.17 Set in the context of the emerging new alliance between the imperium of Rome and the sacerdotium of the church—where http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter1?print 2/5 4/23/2015 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Oxford Scholarship bishops were called to exercise the immense powers conferred on the church by the new imperial legislation of Theodosius I (379–95)—the charges of evilnatured leadership, mass amnesia, and wilful miscarriage of justice raised against Theophilus and his generation acquire some particularly grim qualities. More than just a testimony of the evil character of a church leader, they seem to foretell the first dark steps of a totalitarian shadow creeping over the lives of many a generation to come. Indeed, it has been suggested that the spell cast by this shadow has continued even until our own days with the Nazi ‘experiment’, where (p.5) ideology and power were combined in the hands of single men to produce the most hideous results.18 Yet, research into twentiethcentury totalitarian leadership is not content with simplifying explanations of the kind that ‘evil men’ do ‘evil deeds’. Rather, the need to investigate the reasons behind the support that totalitarian leaders received from their own people is generally acknowledged. In the same way, the currents defining the social and political climate of Theophilus’ time provide the necessary backdrop for the apparent ‘success’ of his actions. If in the study of twentiethcentury totalitarian regimes, where we see a similar identification of ideology and power, the importance of ‘mass manipulation’ has been fully realized, in the period under discussion there is a clear need for a study that will focus on Theophilus’ use of rhetorical argumentation. Beside a somewhat instinctive drive against the man, what all negative assessments of Theophilus have in common is a marked reserve to address with appropriate rigour the question which is central to the present inquiry, namely why such a ‘distorted’ presentation of Origen was constructed in the first place, and why it could find any reception in the fifthcentury church. The investigation which follows is made possible by scholarly advances on several fronts. These include, firstly, a renewed awareness of the rhetorical character of our sources;19 secondly, a more accurate appraisal of the relationships between monks and bishops as the emerging leaders in the late antique city;20 and, thirdly, a more refined presentation of the intrinsic complexity of early Egyptian monasticism.21 Above all, however, my analysis draws on the seminal contributions of Norman Russell, to whose labours we are indebted for the first ever complete presentation and translation of the works of Theophilus in a single volume.22 In assessing the overall agenda of the patriarch, Russell has mounted a convincing argument for a consistent policy (p.6) aimed at harnessing the energy of the monastic movement to serve the wider need of the church.23 In what follows, I shall build upon this argument by means of a detailed examination of what I see as the two key ingredients in the pastoral polemic of the archbishop—masterly use of the conventions of Hellenistic oratory, and indepth knowledge of current monastic ideas—both of which, I will argue, were vital for securing the eventual acceptance of Origen’s condemnation. The monograph is divided into four parts. The first will introduce the background by highlighting the fact that prior to Theophilus’ coming to the historical scene the legacy of Origen had already become a prize topic for debate. The patriarch’s preeminence here comes from the fact that he was the first to succeed in persuading the church as a whole to agree to his reservations. The pages that follow will seek to explain how this aggressively negative interpretation could acquire the status of universally accepted position. The second and the third parts will advance the main hypothesis of the research, namely that the wide circulation and overt rhetorical composition of Theophilus’ antiOrigenist letters allow for a new reading of these documents as a form of ‘mass media’ unique for its time. The rhetorical analysis here will focus on Theophilus’ letter to Epiphanius in 400 and the Synodal Letter after Origen’s condemnation at the Nitrian synod of 400, as well as the three main Festal Letters for the years 401, 402, and 404 respectively which cover the subsequent controversy.24 As we shall see in the final (fourth) part, these documents offer a strong basis for the claim that the eventual acceptance of the condemnation of Origen should be related to the success with which the patriarch had managed to meet the expectations of his audience, and especially of the monks who in this case formed such an important majority. Notes: (1) ‘First’ to distinguish it from the ‘Second’ when Origen was again discussed, and condemned, at the highest level in the sixth century. E. Clark, The Origenist Controversy: The Cultural Construction of an Early Christian Debate (Princeton, NJ, 1992). D. Hombergen, The Second Origenist Controversy: A New Perspective on Cyril of Scythopolis’ Monastic Biographies as Historical Sources for SixthCentury Origenism (Rome, 2001). http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter1?print 3/5 4/23/2015 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Oxford Scholarship (2) Summarized in M. Fédou, La Sagesse et le monde: Essai sur la christologie d’Origène (Paris, 1995), 373–414. (3) Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine, trans. G. A. Williamson, ed. A. Louth (London, 1989), Book 6, ch. 39. (4) J. Quasten, Patrology, 3 vols (Utrecht, 1962), vol. 2, 40: ‘It was Origen’s destiny to be a sign of contradiction during his lifetime as well as after his death. There is hardly anyone who made so many friends or so many enemies. True, he committed errors, but no one can doubt but that he always wanted to be an orthodox and believing Christian.’ (5) Theophilus, Festal Letter of 402: ‘Sciant igitur se huius sollemnitatis alienos non posse celebrare nobiscum domincam passionem, qui Origenem—ut loquar aliquid de fabulis poetarum—hydram omnium sequuntur haereseon et erroris se habere magistrum et principem gloriantur’, preserved in Jerome’s Latin translation as Ep. 98:9; in I. Hilberg (ed.), Sancti Eusebii Hieronymi epistulae, vol. 2, CSEL 55 (Vienna, 1912), 193. N. Russell, Theophilus of Alexandria (London, 2007), 124. Unless otherwise indicated, throughout the monograph I have used his translations, which are referenced as ET in Russell, Theophilus. (6) For a recapitulation of this development, see H. Crouzel, ‘Les Condamnations subies par Origène et sa doctrine’, in U. Kühneweg (ed.), Origeniana septima (Leuven, 1999), 311–15. (7) Fédou, La Sagesse et le monde, 391: ‘Jamais celuici [i.e. Origen] n’avait présenté le Christ comme un simple intellect. . . Jamais il n’avait admis que le Christ fût considéré comme une créature parmi d’autres . . . Jamais il n’avait établi la moindre séparation entre le Christ et le Verbe.’ (8) Fédou, La Sagesse et le monde, 383: ‘étrangères à sa pensée profonde’. (9) Fédou, La Sagesse et le monde, 383: ‘Sans doute avaiton pour une part oublié que, sur certaines questions encore débattues dans la première moitié du IIIe siècle, l’auteur du Peri Archôn n’avait pas prétendu apporter des conclusions définitives mais avait seulement voulu proposer des hypothèses de recherche.’ (10) G. Lazzati, Teofilo d’Alessandria (Milan, 1935), 82: ‘La lotta conclusa, possiamo dire che le armi di Teofilo ottennero ottimi risultati ed esse rimangono testimonianza sicura del carattere del nostro . . . Ci voleva infatti una mente ricca di risorse quale è quella del nostro per far dire ad Origene simili enormità.’ Two decades later, the patriarch’s arguments were again rejected as simply ‘interessate deduzione polemiche aliene alla mente di Origene’, A. Favale, Teofilo d’Alessandria (Turin, 1958), 183. (11) Greek text in Palladius, Dialogus de vita Joannis Chrysostomi (Cambridge, 1928), 6. ET in R. T. Meyer, Dialogue on the Life of St. John Chrysostom (New York, 1985), 41. (12) On Palladius’ hostile attitude towards Theophilus, see D. Katos, Palladius of Hellenopolis (Oxford, 2011), and S. Acerbi, ‘Palladio contro Teofilo: Una testimonianza sull’ episcopato del tempo attraverso un’ accusa di simonia’, Vescovi e pastori in epoca teodosiana (Rome, 1997), vol. 2, 371–81. The accusation of simony with which Palladius crowns the argument in his Dialogue is discussed by S. Acerbi, ‘Palladio contro Teofilo: Una testimonianza sull’ episcopato del tempo attraverso un’ accusa di simonia’, Vescovi e pastori in epoca teodosiana (Rome, 1997), vol. 2, 371–81. (13) E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (2nd edn 1776, repr. London, 1993), vol. 1, 103. (14) Quasten, Patrology, vol. 3, 100–6. (15) O. Chadwick, John Cassian, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 1968), 34. (16) J. N. D. Kelly, Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies (London, 1975), 261. Kelly’s Theophilus was also http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter1?print 4/5 4/23/2015 Introduction: Why Study the First Origenist Controversy Again? Oxford Scholarship ‘powerful, ambitious, and entirely ruthless, more interested in power politics than in dogmatic truth’, 243. (17) Clark, The Origenist Controversy, 9, 105–20. (18) C. Mango, Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome (New York, 1980), 135. (19) On this key development, see now Katos, Palladius. (20) Programmatic here remains the earlier work of P. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority, and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Cassian (Oxford, 1978). Recent discussions in: E. Rebillard and C. Sotinel (eds), L’évêque dans la cité du IVe au Ve siècle: Image et autorité (Rome, 1998); E. Wipszycka, Études sur le christianisme dans l’Égypte de l’antiquité tardive (Rome, 1996) (21) For collections of seminal articles, see E. Wipszycka, Études sur le christianisme dans l’Égypte de l’antiquité tardive (Rome, 1996); J. Goehring, Ascetics, Society, and the Desert: Studies in Early Egyptian Monasticism (Harrisburg, 1999); as well as the papers presented at the 2011 Oxford Patristic Conference, in S. Rubenson (ed.), Early Monasticism and Classical Paideia (Leuven, 2013). (22) Russell, Theophilus of Alexandria. (23) N. Russell, ‘Theophilus and Cyril of Alexandria on the Divine Image: A Consistent Episcopal Policy towards the Origenism of the Desert?’, in L. Perrone (ed.), Origeniana octava (Leuven, 2003), 939–46. N. Russell, ‘Bishops and Charismatics in Early Christian Egypt’, in J. Behr, A. Louth, and D. E Conomos (eds), Abba: The Tradition of Orthodoxy in the West: Festschrift for Bishop Kallistos (Ware) of Diokleia (Crestwood, N.Y., 2003), 99–110. N. Russell, ‘Theophilus of Alexandria as a Forensic Practitioner’, Studia Patristica, 50 (2011), 235–43. (24) On the corpus of Theophilus, see the entries 2580–684 in M. Geerard (ed.), Clavis patrum graecorum, vol. 2 (Turnhout, 1974), and the updates in vol. 6: Supplementum (1998). The key antiOrigenist letters have reached us in Jerome’s translations with only a few fragments of the original Greek, in Jerome, Epistulae 90, 92, 96, 98, 100, Latin text in Hilberg (ed.), CSEL 55, 143–5, 147–55, 159–81, 185–211, 213–32. ET and commentary in Russell, Theophilus, 89–159. On Jerome’s role as a translator, see Chapter 4 (c). PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2015. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a monograph in OSO for personal use (for details see http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/page/privacypolicy). Subscriber: Anderson University; date: 23 April 2015 Access brought to you by: Anderson University http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter1?print 5/5 4/23/2015 Historical Background Oxford Scholarship University Press Scholarship Online Oxford Scholarship Online Theophilus of Alexandria and the First Origenist Controversy: Rhetoric and Power Krastu Banev Print publication date: 2015 Print ISBN13: 9780198727545 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2015 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001 Historical Background Krastu Banev DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.003.0002 Abstract and Keywords This chapter argues that prior to Theophilus’ coming to the historical scene the legacy of Origen had already become a prize topic for rhetorical debate. Theophilus is compared to earlier writers such as Methodius of Olympus whose attacks on Origen triggered the defence by Pamphilus and his disciple Eusebius of Caesarea, and initiated the genre of apologia so important for the careers of Origen’s later Latin translators, Jerome and Rufinus. The patriarch’s preeminence in this tradition does not derive from any exclusive claim on his part for using the rhetorical art but from the fact that he was the first to succeed in his forensic effort to persuade the church as a whole to accept his condemnation of Origen. The chapter concludes by articulating the need for a fresh explanation of the historical mechanism by which Theophilus’ aggressively negative interpretation could acquire the status of universally accepted position. Keywords: forensic rhetoric, heresy, early Christianity, Origen, church history Before we embark on our exploration of the fate of Origen at the hands of the patriarch Theophilus, we must review the background to the Origenist Controversy before the end of the fourth century. This is needed because during the long period starting in Origen’s lifetime (c.185–c.251) and up until the first synodal condemnation, which he was to receive from his own Alexandrian church in 400, a number of voices had been raised alternately to accuse and to defend him. I http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter2?print 1/8 4/23/2015 Historical Background Oxford Scholarship turn my attention to these early voices for two main reasons, rhetorical and historical. My first aim will be to demonstrate that the matter of Origen was inescapably rhetorical from the start. This will be argued with reference to the forensic structure of the earlier debates involving the genre of apologia. My contention here will be that by the end of the fourth century the matter of Origen had become a prize rhetorical topos. Once this is established, I shall turn to the evaluation of the role of the patriarch Theophilus, who took it upon himself to assess and reinvest a large portion of this inheritance into the fortunes of his own fifthcentury church. Here I shall be pursuing my second, historical, aim to show that there were genuine theological and pastoral concerns propelling Theophilus into action. This combination of historical and rhetorical evidence will allow us to grasp more fully the role played by the archbishop both as an important ecclesiastical leader and, as scholarship especially by Norman Russell has recently demonstrated, an experienced practitioner of forensic rhetoric in his own right.1 As the discussion progresses, these initial findings will become the springboard for the analysis of Theophilus’ letters, which will provide a key to the rhetorical relevance of his arguments. (p.10) We begin by revisiting the list of Theophilus’ antiOrigenist predecessors. The only condemnation that Origen received in his lifetime was in relation to his ordination to the priesthood by the bishops Theoctistus of Caesarea and Alexander of Jerusalem. All sources agree that while Origen was not accused of any doctrinal heresy, he was reprimanded on disciplinary grounds, the issue being that he had accepted to be ordained abroad without the consent of his own bishop, Demetrius of Alexandria, who consequently defrocked him.2 Attacks on issues of doctrine began in the early fourth century, from which time we have two lists of accusations, from Peter of Alexandria3 and Methodius of Olympus.4 Pamphilus and Eusebius wrote in defence,5 as well as the author of the anonymous Apology mentioned by Photius.6 Then came the attacks by Eustathius of Antioch,7 Epiphanius,8 and the later Jerome,9 countered by the defence of Rufinus.10 These lists of names indicate a sequence of transformations which take place in the succession of debates over Origen’s heritage. An attentive reading of each one of them would show the important role played by rhetorical conventions that inform and condition the pronouncements of the chief protagonists. When taken all together, they provide the (p.11) charged rhetorical context in which we have to situate the condemnation by Theophilus, in whose time the debates centre on issues of doctrine, the detail of the irregularity of Origen’s ordination being no longer mentioned.11 Thus before Theophilus steps on to the scene, we can divide the prehistory to the controversy into two parts:12 the first dealing with the debates prior to 393 (the beginning of the inquisitorial legacy of Epiphanius), and the second examining the role of the Cypriot bishop during the years 393–9 and its effects on the Palestine of John of Jerusalem, Rufinus, and Jerome. In what follows we shall revisit the main turning points in these earlier stages by paying special attention to the rhetorical structure of the debates. As we go along, I shall retain a preference for calling Origen the magister, or the common teacher. This is because the exclusive focus of these later debates on his work confirms Origen’s role as a ‘progenitor’ of orthodox doctrine for all parties concerned right up to, and including, Theophilus of Alexandria.13 (a) Distant Prehistory The first real tensions over Origen’s legacy begin with Methodius of Olympus, whose treatise On the Resurrection included a selection of Origenist propositions with the purpose of refuting them.14 In the process of his counter argumentation, however, Methodius has been accused of misinterpreting the views of the magister.15 In so doing (p.12) Methodius bears the responsibility for heightening the rhetorical charge over Origen’s theological legacy, at least to the extent of partly triggering the lengthy Defence of Origen, written about 307–10 by Pamphilus and his disciple Eusebius of Caesarea.16 The aim of this Defence was to show Origen as a universal teacher vested with the authority of a ‘church father’.17 The rhetorical efforts of Methodius and Pamphilus give us the opposite ends of the fourthcentury spectrum of opinions concerning the magister. Their particular concern with the resurrection body can be linked with the gruesome historical reality of persecution and the desire on the part of regular Christians to know what their faith teaches about the afterlife. Later authors, writing after the end of official persecution, did not share this same concern. Yet, given this earlier polemic, it was no longer possible for future discussions to take place in a rhetorical vacuum. Among those who were prepared to defend the name of Origen we must mention Athanasius, with his famous appeal to http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter2?print 2/8 4/23/2015 Historical Background Oxford Scholarship the words of the ‘diligent Origen’ (τοῦ φιλοπόνου Ὠριγένους ).18 This attitude discloses Athanasius’ admiration for the magister and makes it clear that for him that name remained still free from any taint of heresy. This Athanasian guarantee, however, was rejected by the leader of the victorious group at Nicaea, Eustathius of Antioch, who criticized Origen as the precursor and founder of Arianism, and thus of all heresies.19 Athanasius described him as a ‘zealot for the truth’, deserving praise because he had ‘hated the Arian heresy’.20 Yet the two disagreed over the matter of Origen. Eustathius’ attack was on Origen’s doctrine on the resurrection. He based himself on the writings of Methodius of Olympus accepting, unquestioningly, the latter’s charges against the magister for denying the bodily resurrection. If we agree that, as seems (p.13) very probable, Eustathius’ antiOrigenist works predate his antiArian ones,21 then it is clear how antiOrigenist presuppositions corroborate his main attacks against the teaching of Arius. Just as for Eusebius Origenist views go hand in hand with a proArian theology, so in Eustathius we find a conjunction of antiOrigenism and antiArianism that was to leave a lasting stain on Origen’s reputation.22 For our purpose it is important to bear in mind the historical circumstances of the two principal charges at the core of these fourthcentury rhetorical attacks on Origen: his teaching on the resurrection linked with the persecution, and the accusation of Arianism linked with the doctrinal debates after the peace of Constantine. This particular mixing of historical and rhetorical elements will be taken up by Theophilus who, as we shall see later on, will develop them with a unique connection to monastic themes.23 (b) Immediate Prehistory Before we reach Theophilus, however, we must review the developments in the last quarter of the fourth century when we perceive the beginnings of the new phase in the struggle over Origen’s heritage. About 376 Epiphanius starts mounting a careful and meticulous invective against the magister, and in accordance with the canons of the genre begins with a sketch of Origen’s life, which is followed by an enumeration and examination of the standard charges against the magister.24 Throughout his treatise the Cypriot heresiologue uses rhetorical amplification to discredit his victim—the ageold technique for such occasions, employed later by Theophilus as well. Although correct in some of the major points, such as the two periods of Origen’s (p.14) life—the Egyptian (c.185–231) and the Palestinian (c.232–51)—the author is still not able to give, for example, any clear reasons for Origen’s transition from Egypt to Palestine and instead presents his reader with something that deliberately blurs the distinction between fact, falsity, and folklore. A passage that is sufficient to get a sense of the whole atmosphere of the account is the one in which we are told that pagan authorities had forced Origen into a choice of homosexuality or sacrificing to an idol, of which he had allegedly chosen the second.25 The exceptional negative rhetorical charge of this image26 is clearly set against earlier positive accounts of the man’s life, which recount how his father had died a martyr leaving a seventeenyearold Origen desiring a martyr’s death for himself too.27 Epiphanius’ role was thus central in catalysing a new wave of antiOrigenist rhetoric which was to exercise immense influence in the interplay between the new figures that step into the debate—John of Jerusalem, Rufinus, Jerome, and ultimately Theophilus. With their participation the issue is finally brought on to the stage of international church affairs, involving what seems to be the whole of the Christian world of the time—the churches of Cyprus, Palestine, Egypt, Rome, and Constantinople.28 It was in fact Epiphanius’ clash with bishop John of Jerusalem, at Easter 393, which provided the turning point that set the whole controversy into action.29 In an exchange of public sermons during the Holy Week celebrations Epiphanius and John of Jerusalem had accused each other of Origenism and anthropomorphism respectively, and while Epiphanius was able to dispel all charges of anthropomorphism, bishop John was not able to respond immediately to the Cypriot’s attack and renounce ‘the perverse doctrines of Origen’.30 This (p.15) incident reveals some definite theological disagreement that must have existed between the two prelates, and even if at the time we can only assume friendly relations between them (for otherwise Epiphanius would not have been welcome in the Holy Land),31 at this point we can speak of the beginning of a refroidissement in their relationship that would lead to an open confrontation not long afterwards. The occasion presented itself when Epiphanius, not confident in the theology of John, decided at the beginning of 394 to ordain the brother of Jerome, Paulinianus, as priest for the monastery in Bethlehem.32 This intrusion http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter2?print 3/8 4/23/2015 Historical Background Oxford Scholarship of the Cypriot prelate into the affairs of the church of Jerusalem was a clear violation of the rights of John as the local bishop. Epiphanius tried to exonerate himself for the ordination and presented his actions as a justified response to the needs of the Bethlehem community, essentially a body of foreigners and thus in his argument outside of the jurisdiction of the local bishop. This contention did not appeal to John and the rupture between the two—on points both of theology and of church discipline—was complete. When Jerome had to decide which side to take he joined with the bishop of Cyprus and eventually, at the beginning of 397, produced his philippic Against John of Jerusalem, which although most probably not published in his lifetime still shows the high temperature to which the debates had risen.33 From this time on we also see the two former friends Jerome and Rufinus (now on the side of John) separated by an ever increasing chasm which, having started as a dispute over matters of translation, moves now into open enmity and verbal abuse, whose powerful echo would reverberate for many centuries thereafter in works such as their Apologies against each other.34 Yet before the final explosion, as we find it in the Apologies of 401, there is a significant moment of reconciliation when, at the early Palestinian stage of the debates, we see Theophilus interceding in the role of peacemaker. Following the irregular ordination of Paulinianus, John of Jerusalem had appealed to Theophilus against Jerome and (p.16) his supporters as schismatics. Despite the failed attempt of Theophilus’ envoy Isidore to mediate between the two parties, in the end the mission was successful and peace restored at Easter 397.35 Thus after about four years, following several attempts at reconciliation, and the exhibition of much bitterness amounting practically to the excommunication of Jerome and his friends, the dispute was brought to a halt. It is significant to note that on this occasion Theophilus’ decisive action appears to have been in support of John’s episcopal authority in Jerusalem. The end result was that Jerome and his associates were allowed to remain in Bethlehem. John of Jerusalem had threatened to expel them, seeing this as the only way to resolve the conflict (and he had secured the support of the governor of the province to do so).36 To this brief moment of peace, a silent witness is the friendly letter of remonstrance written by Jerome to Rufinus on receipt of his version of the De principiis,37 dated some time in 399. However, this was sent in the first instance to Pammachius, and the latter treacherously suppressed it, thus putting an end to all hope for true reconciliation between the two friends. Their appeasement persisted only for a short time, to become as it were the springboard for yet more rhetorical attacks and Apologies on both sides after the condemnation of Origen by Theophilus in 400. Thus we come to the discussion of Theophilus’ role in the conflict, which begins after 397, when he steps in to inaugurate a decisive change in the fortunes of Origen’s legacy. The preceding introductory review of the debates over Origen’s legacy is deficient in its brevity but its purpose was not to be exhaustive. My aim was simply to highlight the rhetorical intensity of the intellectual climate in which these debates evolved and consequently to argue that we should see a bishop like Theophilus as a man of his time, free to think for himself but indebted to this tradition. What had he inherited? Early in the fourth century, the threat and the reality of persecution had given rise to questions about Origen’s teachings on the fate of the (p.17) material body in the resurrection. Later doctrinal quarrels had given rise to new disputes over Origen’s potential contribution to the debates on the relationship between the persons of the Trinity. When we evaluate the charges put against Origen in these different contexts, we see both how powerful his influence was and how little those who condemned him were concerned to give him a fair hearing. Thus what we observe at each crucial juncture, beginning with Methodius and Eusebius and ending with Jerome and Rufinus and Theophilus, is a curious mixture of historically verifiable data wrapped in a rhetorically charged foil. This combination, most clearly visible in the proliferating genre of apologia, has created the specific bad taste so repugnant to the intellectual palate of modern readers. Almost without exception, their judgement lacks appreciation for the coherence, not to say persuasiveness, of these particular arguments. At best, their rationality is described as not convincing, but more often it is simply rejected as a piece of dishonest polemic, intellectual injustice, or bad rhetorical manipulation. Yet stating that a set of arguments is not convincing to a twentieth or twentyfirstcentury reader proves little about its power to a fourth or fifthcentury audience. Indeed, unless one postulates an inherent intellectual deficiency in the authors we are concerned with and the people they imagined themselves writing to—and http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter2?print 4/8 4/23/2015 Historical Background Oxford Scholarship Theophilus here stands in a long line of predecessors that could not be so easily dismissed—we are left wondering how such arguments were ever thought useful by those who laboured over them. Instead of simply rejecting the efforts of these early controversialists, I shall make a case for their relevance on the basis of two observations. The first is related to the fact that at each different phase of the debate we are confronted with mixtures of historically ‘valid’ data and individual ‘manipulative’ accusations. If such is the case from the start, the question that needs to be asked is not whether there are exceptions to this rule and if Theophilus could have been one, for there seems to be no such exceptions, but how we can account for the persistent appeal of such ‘fraud’ arguments to the ancient authors who continued producing them. Obviously, there is a need here for an analysis of the accusations which is sensitive to the popularity of rhetorical techniques used by a given author, and by Theophilus in particular. The opposite side of this coin gives us the second observation, namely, that when certain Origenist positions are refuted, Origen’s name is not always mentioned, or, if it is mentioned, the charges are not always fully relevant to his own system of thought. Because of rhetoric, that is, there was miscarriage of justice.38 (p.18) These observations allow us to perceive an inherent difficulty in the way we somehow expect late antique bishops to be able to operate in a serene climate of cool intellectual objectivity. Their context was radically different. As recent scholarship has pointed out, they conducted their business in a rhetorically charged atmosphere (which got even more heated when they met at councils).39 The very existence of such presuppositions on our part, however, can be taken as an indication of how humanly impossible this expectation is—in any century—for we seem no more prepared to change our own attitude. Instead of discussing the impossible, namely that the ancients could have behaved differently, what I propose to do in the pages that follow is to try to understand them on their own terms. And this means assessing the full weight of the rhetorical setting of their debates. We have already seen the interplay between three essential focal points: Origen’s own theological position, the role his position plays in a given debate, and how it is used by a given author in order to persuade his audience in favour of his own convictions. The last one is extremely important because it is here that we observe, long before Theophilus, how Origen’s positions were never fairly or exactly represented. Given the longevity of this tradition, we cannot simply reject its rhetorical makeup as ‘bad taste’. One obvious way of finding a way of repairing such rhetorically damaged records is to sift them through in order to discern what grains of historical truth they might contain, to see, in other words, the original ray of light behind ‘le prism déformant’ of the otherwise useless rhetoric.40 In the chapters that follow, I shall pursue a different aim and ask why this rhetoric was included in the first place. Rather than simply dismiss it in the case of Theophilus, I shall attempt to appreciate the purpose his rhetoric served at the time when it was delivered. Notes: (1) Russell, ‘Theophilus of Alexandria as a Forensic Practitioner’. Russell’s argument develops the important insights of Caroline Humfress, Orthodoxy and the Courts (Oxford, 2007). (2) Eusebius, HE, 6, 8, 4–5; Jerome, Ep. 33 (Jerome still proOrigenist at the time); Photius, Bibl., 118 [Bekker, 92a–93a] quoting from a lost chapter from Pamphilus’ Apologia pro Origene; in R. Henry (ed.), Photius, Bibliothèque, vol. 2. (3) A later legend, this book of Acts has been used to reconstruct the antiOrigenist attitudes at the time. What is explicitly attacked is Origen’s alleged denial of the resurrection body as identical with the present body. See discussion in J. F. Dechow, Dogma and Mysticism in Early Christianity: Epiphanius of Cyprus and the Legacy of Origen (Leuven, 1988), 108. (4) Cf. L. G. Patterson, Methodius of Olympus: Divine Sovereignty, Human Freedom and Life in Christ (Washington, DC, 1997), chs 5 and 6. (5) Pamphilus and Eusebius of Caesaria, Apologia pro Origene (interpretatione Rufini). Apologie pour Origène. Texte critique, traduction et notes par R. Amacker et E. Junod, SC 464 (Paris, 2002), 1–10. http://www.oxfordscholarship.com.libproxy.anderson.edu/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727545.001.0001/acprof9780198727545chapter2?print 5/8
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