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ISBN0-7166-0103-6 LibraryofCongressControlNumber2002068987 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 03 54321 L 1 Listhe 12th letterofouralphabetItwasalsoaletterin In physics, Lstandsforlength,asitdoesin mostmeas- thealphabetused bythe Semites,whoonce lived in urementformulas,ingeography, Lindicates longitude, Syriaand Palestine.Theynamed itlamed,theirwordfor and /standsforlatitude.The /alsostandsforleafinde- goad,orcrookedstaff.JUeyadaptedan Egyptian hiero- scribing books,andforleftasin If,orleftfield;andfor glyphic{picturesymbol)meaninggoadto representthe loweras in I.e.,orlowercase,aterm used intypography letter.TheancientGreekstooktheletterintotheiralpha- andjournalism. betandcalled itlambda.Later,theRomansborrowed it Pronunciation.In English,/ispronounced byplac- fromtheGreekalphabetandgavetheletterits present ingthetongueontheedgeofthelowerfrontteethand capital Lform.SeeAlphabet with itssidesfree.Thevelum,orsoftpalate,isclosed, Uses.Lor/isthe 11th mostfrequentlyused letterin andthevocal cordsarevibratedwiththebreath. books,newspapers,andotherprinted material in Eng- Lissilentinwordssuchas would,salmon,orhalfIn lish. ListheRoman numeralfor50.When itiswritten Mexicanand otherAmerican Spanish dialects, //ispro- withthecrossbar,as£,itisthesignforpound in English nouncedas/is pronounced in English.See Pronuncia- money,andcomesfromtheLatinword libra,orpound. tion. MarianneCooley DevelopmentoftheletterL^^^^^^^^^^^| ThesmallletterIappearedduringtheAD.500's.Writers graduallydroppedthehorizontalstroke,and,bythe800's, theletterhaddevelopeditspresentshape. ^ TheancientEgyptians,about3000^^^^H usedasymbolthatrepresenteda V^H I L crookedstaffcalledagoad. I Today r TheSemitesadaptedtheEgyptiansym- bolabout1500B.CTheynameditlamed, whichwastheirwordforgoad. SpecialwaysofexpressingtheletterL i ThePhoeniciansusedasymbolofan upside-downstaffabout1000B.C International Braille MorseCode A TheGreelcsaddedthelettertotheiral- phabetabout600B.CTheycalleditlamb- H daandwroteitasaninvertedV. L TheRomansgavetheletterLitspresent shapeaboutA.D.114. International SemaphoreCode SignLanguage FlagCode Alphabet CommonformsoftheletterL ULl v\=t/ l\Ll Handwrittenlettersvary Romanlettershavesmallfin- Sans-seriflettersarealso Computerlettershavespe- frompersontoperson.Manu- ishingstrokescalled5er//5that calledgothicletters.They cialshapes.Computerscan script{printed)lettershave extendfromthemainstrokes. havenoserifs.Thetypeface "read"theseletterseitheropti- straightlines,left,andsimple Thetypefaceshownaboveis shownaboveiscalledFutura. callyorbymeansofthemag- curves.Cursiveletters,right, Baskerville.Theitalicformap- TheitalicformofFuturaap- neticinkwithwhichtheletters haveflowinglines. pearsattheright pearsattheright maybeprinted. 2 LaRaza,NationalCouncilof LaRaza,NationalCouncilof.SeeNationalCouncil Secretariesoflabor ofLaRciza. Laayoune.See ElAaiun. Nfune Tofofoicke UPrnedseirdent Labor,in birth.See Childbirth. WilliamB.Wilson 1913 Wilson Labor,in economics.See Labormovement. JamesJ.Davis 1921 Harding, Labor,Department Coolidge,Hoover of,isan executive depart- WilliamN.Doak 1930 Hoover mentofthe United States *FrancesPerkins 1933 TF.rDu.mRaonosevelt, governmentthatworksto LewisB.Schwellenbach 1945 Truman promotethewelfareof Maurice Tobin 1948 Truman J. wageearners.Thedepart- MartinP.Durkin 1953 Eisenhower mentseeksto improve JamesP.Mitchell 1953 Eisenhower theeconomic positionof *ArthurJ.Goldberg 1961 Kennedy workers intheUnited 'WG.eoWriglelaPr.dSWhiulrttzz 11996692 KNiexnonnedy,LB.Johnson States,to bettertheir JamesD.Hodgson 1970 Nixon working conditions,and Peter Brennan 1973 Nixon,Ford J. toadvancetheiropportu- JohnT.Dunlop 1975 Ford nitiesforemployment. ThesealoftheDepartment WRa.yJ.MUasresrhya,llJr. 11997776 CFaorrtder Thesecretaryoflabor,a ofLabor Raymond Donovan 1981 Reagan memberofthe president's WilliamE.J.BrockIII 1985 Reagan Cabinet, headsthedepart- AnnDoreMcLaughlin 1987 Reagan ment.The presidentappointsthe secretarysubjectto 'ElizabethH.Dole 1989 G.H.W.Bush theapproval oftheU.S.Senate. LynnMartin 1991 G.H.W.Bush Functions.The DepartmentofLaboradministersfed- RobertB.Reich 1993 Clinton eral lawson minimumwages,overtime,child labor,and AElleaxiinseML.CHhearoman 21090917 CG.liWn.toBnush migrantworkersand determineswage ratesforwork done undergovernmentcontracts.ALaborDepartment 'HasaseparatebiographyinWorldBook. agencycalledtheOccupational Safetyand HealthAd- ministration(OSHA)developsand enforcesjob safety History.In 1884,CongressestablishedaBureau ofLa- and health standardsformostU.S.industries. borinthe Departmentofthe Interior. In 1888,Congress The LaborDepartmentadministersfederal lawson gavethebureau independentstatusasthe Department workers'compensation programsand enforces legal ofLabor. In 1903,CongressestablishedthenewDepart- standardsforthefundingand operation ofprivate pen- mentofCommerceand Laborand madetheDepart- sionandwelfare plans. Italso overseesthe nation's un- mentofLaborabureau in it. employmentinsurance programs. In 1913,PresidentWoodrowWilson signedalawcre- Thedepartmentworksto reduceunemploymentby atingan independentDepartmentofLabor.Theofficeof providingjobtrainingfordisadvantagedyoung men secretaryoflaborbecamethefirstCabinet-level office andwomen.Thedepartmenthelps peoplefind jobs to beoccupied byawomanwhen Frances Perkinswas through programsadministered byoneofitsagencies, appointedtothe postin 1933. theU.S. EmploymentService.The departmentalsogives CriticallyreviewedbytheDepartmentofLabor local governmentsfundsto establishand maintaintheir RelatedarticlesinWorldBookinclude: ownjobtraining programsfordisadvantagedand un- ApprenticeshipandTraining, JobCorps employed people. Inaddition,itdevelopsapprentice- ConBusruemaeuroPfriceIndex OLcacbuopraSttiaotinsatlicsS,afBeutryeaanudof ship standardsforthetraining ofskilledworkers. EmploymentService,United HealthAdministration TheLaborDepartmentenforcesfederal regulations States Unemploymentinsurance thatrequire businessesdoingworkforthe U.S.govern- FairLaborStandardsAct Wagesandhours mentto maintain nondiscriminatoryhiringand employ- Flag(picture:Flagsofthe Women'sBureau mentpractices.These regulationsaredesignedtoguar- UnitedStatesgovernment) anteeequal employmentopportunityto ethnic minor- Labor,Knightsof.See KnightsofLabor. ities,women,disabled people,andveterans. LaborDayisaholidayhonoringworking people. Itis The departmentadministers lawsthatrequirethefair observedasalegal holidayonthefirstMondayin Sep- election oflaborleadersandthepublicationofaccurate temberthroughoutthe United States, Puerto Rico,and unionfinancial reports,inaddition,itpromotescooper- Canada.Labororganizationssponsorvariouscelebra- ation between laborunionsand employers. tions, butformostpeople itisadayofrestand recre- AnotherimportantLaborDepartmentfunction isthat ation.The holidayalso has becomeasymbol oftheend ofserving astheU.S.government'schieffact-finding ofsummer.InAustralia, LaborDayiscalled EightHour agencyinthefield oflaboreconomics.Thedepart- Day,and itcommemoratesthe successful strugglefora ment's Bureau ofLaborStatisticscollects,analyzes,and shorterworking day.In Europe, LaborDayis observed publishes information on employmentand unemploy- on May1. ment,wagesand industrial relations,occupational safety Two men have beencreditedwith suggestingaholi- and health,and productivityandtechnology.The bureau dayto honorworking people intheUnited States—Mat- preparestheConsumerPrice Index(CPi),the mostwide- thewMaguire,a machinistfrom Paterson,Newjersey, lyused measurementofpricetrends inthe United and Peter McCuire,aNewYorkCitycarpenterwho J. States. helpedfoundtheUnited Brotherhood ofCarpenters LabonManagementReportingAct 3 andJoiners.Both men playedan importantpartin stag- couraged jobseekerswho havestopped lookingfor ingthefirstLaborDayparadein NewYorkCityin Sep- workbecausetheythinknoneisavailable. tember 1882. In 1887,Oregon becamethefirststateto TheUnited Nations(UN)usestheterm economically makeLaborDayalegal holiday.PresidentGroverCleve- activepopulationinstead oflaborforce.Theeconomi- land signed abill in 1894 making LaborDayanational callyactive population consistsofpeopleofallages holiday. lackSantino whoareemployed orlookingforjobs.The percentages Laborforceisthesegmentofanation's population ofteen-agersand old people inthisgrouparehigherin thatworksforpayorisactivelyseekingwork.This manydevelopingcountriesthan in industrial nations. group producesmostofthe nation'sgoodsand servic- Economistssometimes usetheterm humanresources es,and itssizeand productivityhelpdeterminethena- forthetotal numberofpeopleavailabletoworkifneed- tion'seconomicgrowth.TheUnited States laborforce ed.Duringawar,forexample,manypeople notnormal- expandedfromabout2 million in 1800toover130mil- lyinthelaborforcetakejobs inwarplants. lion in2000.Duringthisperiod,itchangedfromamain- Changesinthelaborforcesince 1900includedif- lyagricultural oneto onecomposed mainlyofindustri- ferences insex,age,and occupational makeup. In 1900, al,service,andwhite-collarworkers. the laborforceincluded onlyabout20percentofAmeri- TheUnited Statesgovernmentusestheterm labor canwomen,compared with47 percentin 2000.Muchof forceiorpeopleatleast16yearsoldwho havecivilian the increasewasamong marriedwomenworking out- jobsorareactivelylookingforjobs,orwhoare inthe sidethe home.Alarge numberofwomenjoinedthe la- armedforces.Groups notinthe laborforce includedis- borforce becauseofchanging social attitudes, risingdi- abled persons,full-time homemakers, retired people, vorce rates,declining birth rates,and higherwages. and students.Thelaborforcealso does notincludedis- Anothercauseofincreasedfemaleemploymentwasan increase inthe numberof white-collarjobs.White-collar jobs includebusiness,clerical,and professional posi- OccupationgroupsintheUnitedStates tions,which manywomenchoose.Theincreasingavail- Numberof abilityoflabor-saving householdappliances sinceabout Occupationgroups employedpeople' 1950hasalsocontributedtothelarge participationof White-collarworkers 80,938,000 marriedwomen inthe laborforce. Clerical 18,503,000 Duringthesame period,thepercentageofmen65 PSraolfeesssionalandtechnical 2166,,005434,,000000 and olderwhowere inthelaborforcefellfromabout65 Managers 20,338,000 percenttoabout15 percent.Amajorcauseofthis de- Blue-collarworkers 32^31,000 cline inthe numberofoldermen intheworkforcewas Operatives 17,698,000 the introductionofsocial security,whichenabled many Craftworkers 14,833,000 oldermento retire.Compulsoryretirementrules,plus Serviceworkers 18,359,000 jobdiscriminationagainsttheelderly,also pushed older Otherthanprivatehousehold 17,644,000 men outofthe laborforce. Privatehousehold 715,000 in 1900,white-collarworkers made upabout20per- Farm,forestry,andfishingworkers 3,245,000 centofthelaborforce,comparedwith nearly60percent Farmersandfarmmanagers 1,108,000 Otherfarm,forestry,andfishingworkers 2,136,000 in 2000.The percentageoffarmworkersdroppedfrom Totalworkers 135,073,000 about40percentto lessthan 3percentduringthesame period.Thesechanges resulted largelyfrom increased 'Figuresforindividualcategoriesmaynotadduptototalsduetorounding. technology,which boostedthedemandforwhite-collar Figuresarefor2tX)l. Source:U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics. employeesand reducedthe needforagriculturalwork- ers. MenandwomenintheUnitedStateslaborforce* Thegovernmentandthelaborforce.The U.S.government,throughthe DepartmentofLabor,hasvarious agenciesand programsthatpromoteemploymentof Millionsofpeople Men Women ^—Total thelaborforce.Forexample,anagencycalledthe Unit- ed States EmploymentService matchesjob seekerswith 160 availablepositions.ThejobCorps program promotes 2001:141,814,000 employmentbyprovidingworktrainingfordisadvan- tagedyouths. Themainjob program ofthe U.S.governmentisa revenue-sharing planauthorized bytheJobTraining PartnershipActof1982.Underthis law,stateand local governments receivefederalfundsto providejobtrain- ingforunskilled, needyyouthsandforneedyadults.Pri- vatefirmssupplythistraining. PaulLBurgess SeealsoCareers(graph:Averagestartingsalaries in theU.S.);Unemployment. Laborlegislation.See Labormovement. 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 Labor-managementrelations.See Industrial relations. '1890-1946,persons14yearsoldandover;since1947.persons16yearsoldand( Labor-IVIanagementReportingandDisclosure oSroutroce1:99U4.Si.ncBluurdeeaumeomfbLearbosroSftatthiestaicrsm.edforces. Act.See Labormovement(Chargesofcorruption). 4 Labormovement Labormovennentisatermthatreferstothe efforts try.The union sends men andwomen called organizers ofworkersasagroupto improvetheireconomicposi- to persuadeworkerstojoin. tion.The movementconsistschieflyofattempts bylabor Mostunions insiston beingthesolerepresentativeof unionsto promotethewelfareofwage earners. Butpo- aparticulargroup ofemployees.Theydo notwantto litical partiesand othergroups havealso played apart sharethe privilegeofrepresentingtheworkerswithany inthe labormovement. othergroup.This practice iscalledtheprincipleofex- Beforethe developmentoflaborunions,individual la- clusivejurisdiction.The National LaborRelationsBoard borers had almostnovoice in determiningtheirwages, conductssecret-ballotelectionsatfirmsto determine hours,orworking conditions.Therewasaplentiful sup- which unionworkerswant, ifany. plyoflabor,and employerscould easilyreplaceany Auniontriesto getalltheworkers in aplantorindus- workerwhothreatenedtoquit.Thecompetitionforjobs trytojointhe union. In some establishments,the union forced poorpeopletoworkunderalmostanycondi- andtheemployeragreeto setupa unionshop.Ina tions. union shop,the employercan hireanyone. Butnewem- Workersformed unions becausetheirbargaining ployees mustjointhe unionwithinacertain period or powerasagroupwas greaterthanthatofindividuals. If paytheequivalentofunion dues.Thisarrangement allthe employees inafactoryorotherbusiness stopped spreadsthe costofunion representation evenlyamong work,itwould bedifficultto replacethem. Butearlyun- theemployees,whoalso shareanybenefitsthe union ionsfaced strong opposition. Courts regardedthefirst wins. Butindividualswho opposethe union mustcon- attemptsatgroup bargaining as illegal,and employers tributeto itagainsttheirwishes.Twenty-one states, refusedto recognize unionsasthe representativesof mostofthem inthe South, have laws banning union workers. shops.Such lawsarecalled right-to-worklawsbecause Inthe United States,the labormovementbeganto be theyguaranteeaperson's rightto obtain employment morewidelyaccepted duringthe 1930's.The National withoutjoining orsupporting aunion. LaborRelationsActof1935and otherlaws required em- A businessthatemploys both unionand nonunion ployersto bargainwith unions.By1945, morethana workers iscalled an openshop.Union duesare higher third ofall nonagricultural laborerswere union mem- in mostopen shopsthan in union shops becausefewer bers.Today,organized laborisstill apowerful eco- people sharethecostofunion representation. In a nomicforce,eventhoughthe percentage ofworkers closedshop,which is nowgenerallyillegal,theem- who belongtoaunion hasdeclined sharply.The high- ployercould hire onlyunion members. estpercentage ofunion membersare in construction, Duringthe 1800'sand early1900's,manyemployers manufacturing, mining,andtransportation industries. insistedthattheirworkers signapromise nottojoina The labormovement,along with economicprogress, union.Such anagreementwascalled ayellow-dogcon- hasgivenworkersahigherstandard ofliving.Com- tract.The Norris-LaGuardiaActof1932 saidthatanem- paredto pastlaborers,modernworkersearn higher ployee could notbe sued infederal courtforbreakinga wages,workshorterhours,are betterprotected against yellow-dog contract.Asaresult,such agreements be- accidents,and receive morefringe benefits. However, came unenforceableand graduallydisappeared. some people believethatunionsaretoo largeandtoo Arrangingcontracts.Labor'sgoalsare often differ- powerful. entfromthose ofmanagement. Higherwagesand bene- Inthe United Statesand Canada, union goalsand ac- fits increasecosts,and managementusuallywantsto re- tivitiesare muchalike.The labormovementin most duce costs in ordertoearn alargerprofit.Thetwo sides othercountriesdiffersgreatlyfromthatinthesetwo na- settletheirdifferencesand establish conditionsthatare tions.Mostofthe sectionsofthisarticledealwiththe acceptableto boththroughaprocesscalled collective labormovementinthe United States. bargaining. Whatlaborunionsdo In atypical bargaining session, union representatives make demandsand managementthen makesacoun- The chiefaims ofa laborunionareto improvethe terofferthatmeetssome, butnotall,ofthe union'sde- wages, hours,working conditions,andjob securityof mands.Thetwo sidesthentrytoworkoutacompro- itsmembers.Usually,thefirststepforanyunion isto mise.The bargainers maycall in outside expertsto help, getworkerstojoin it.Afteraunion has become estab- including lawyers,economists,and industrial engineers. lished in aplantorindustry, its majorfunctionsarear- Manymeetingsalso include stateorfederal govern- ranging laborcontractsand handling jobdisputes. mentrepresentativesto help settle disagreements.The Some laborgroups help provideapprenticeship pro- results ofthe bargaining go intoawritten contract. gramsand otherbenefitsfortheirmembers.Unionsare Usually,contracttalks begin several months before alsoconcernedwith politicalactivitiesand public rela- the existing agreementcomestoan end. Some unions tions. havea nocontract-no workruleand stopworkiftheir Organizingworkersisthe processofbringing contractexpires beforeanewone is signed. wage earnerstogetherintoaunion. In some cases,the Alaborcontractdescribes in detailthearrangements workersthemselvesformaunionto increasetheirbar- concerning wages, hours,and othertermsofemploy- gaining power. Inothercases,anexisting union decides ment. Some ofthe mostimportantmatterscovered are to organizetheemployeesofaparticularplantorindus- (1) union security,(2)wagesand hours,(3)fringe benefits,(4)seniority,(5) safetymeasures,and (6)the handling ofgrievances. ofBDuasniineelsQsuAidnmninMiisltlrsa,ttihoen,coHnatrrviabrudtoUrniovfertshiistya.rticle,isProfessor Unionsecurity\satermforthe partofalaborcon- tractthatprovidesforthe position and rightsofthe